WEBSTER-COOLEY LANGUAGE SERIES 



THE ELEMENTS OF 
ENGLISH GRAMMAI^ 
AND COMPOSITION 



WILLIAM 

FRANK 
WEBSTEI\ 




Book ^ AK 



Copyright N". 



X^Oi-, 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



WEBSTER-COOLEY LANGUAGE SERIES 

THE ELEMENTS OE 

GRAMMAR AND 

COMPOSITION 

BY 

W. F. WEBSTER 

Principal of the East Hi(jh School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 
ASSISTED BY 

ALICE WOODWORTH COOLEY 




HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN, AND COMPANY 

Boston : 4 Park Street 5 New York : 85 Fifth Avenue 

Chicago : 378-388 Wabash Avenue 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 

Two CoDies Received 

APR 6 1906 

Cppyright Entry , 
CLASS >9 XXC. No, 
COPY B. 






COPYRIGHT ig03, 1904, 1905, AND I906 BY HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO. 
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



Acknowledgrnents for kind permission to use 
extracts from the writings of James Whiteomb 
Riley are due to Charles Scribner's Sons and to 
the Bobbs-Merrill Co. ; of D. L. Sharp, to the 
Century Co. ; of Henry van Dyke to the author 
and to Charles Scribner's Sons. 



PREFACE 

English is a unit of study. Including, as it does, 
not only what is commonly called " language " in 
the lower grades, but spelling, reading, composition, 
and grammar, it is by far the most important sub- 
ject in our common schools. All parts of this great 
whole are very closely bound together ; and the 
study of any one of these branches is the study of 
all. An understanding of grammar helps toward 
correct expression ; a knoAvledge of the difficulties 
of composition lays a foundation for the true appre- 
ciation of beautiful literature; and literature itself 
is the best instructor in the art of graceful and 
powerful composition. 

The term language, in its usual interpretation, 
means composition and grammar. Of these two, 
composition, or the art of expression, is the more 
important subject for study in elementary education. 
Every child that completes a common-school educa- 
tion should be able to express correctly, either by 
writing or by word of mouth, the thoughts he has 
to exchange with his fellows. In social communica- 
tion with friends, in the world of business, and in 
the performance of his duty as a responsible citizen 
of this nation, the man with the ability to say what 
he thinks is the master of him who has it not. It is 



iv . PREFACE 

because composition is regarded of so great impor- 
tance that it is found in all courses of study in con- 
stantly increasing amount. To-day in our best schools 
it is taught in some form from the day a child enters 
the kindergarten until he shines forth a graduate 
of the high school. The custom which once prevailed, 
and still prevails in some schools, of ceasing to teach' 
composition systematically when the instruction in 
grammar begins is a grievous mistake. Better far, 
if need be, to reduce the amount of technical gram- 
mar than to give over to any branch the time that 
should be used in gaining the power of full, clear 
expression. 

Composition is often classified as written and oral. 
Oral composition has been too often disregarded ; 
yet it has distinct advantages. To be able to say 
well five or ten sentences upon a definite topic is a 
great accomplishment, — one of inestimable value. 
Fronting a large class, with a carefully wrought out- 
Hne in hand ready for use if needed, the boy who 
frequently speaks what he thinks about a subject 
makes surprising gains in courage, in independence, 
and in the ability to give his thoughts full and com- 
plete expression. 

Oral exercises have another peculiar advantage. 
Few, if any, children in the grammar grades write, 
"It is her;" yet too few say, "It is she." Writ- 
ten composition cannot discover these common errors 
in speech ; and written composition can never cor- 
rect them. Constant oral drill on the correct idioms, 



PREFACE V 

until the incorrect form wounds the ear Hke a blow, 
is the only way to be rid of the errors of common 
speech. There are in this book many exercises for 
the purpose of purifying language of these vulgar- 
isms; but the very best sentences for this purpose 
are those that the instructor makes to meet the needs 
of the community in which he labors. 

It has already been said that the study of gram- 
mar is of great assistance in acquiring purity of 
speech. It would be impossible for impressionable 
youth to hear and read beautiful sentences each day 
without being better for the experience. But when 
there is added to this contact with beautiful expres- 
sions an analysis of them that discovers how they 
are formed, composition itself is really being stud- 
ied. Again, the faults in our common talk are 
nearly all grammatical errors; and a vigorous appli- 
cation of the rules of grammar goes a long way 
towards rooting up these weeds of conversation. 
Moreover, a study of the relations of the parts of an 
English sentence lays a foundation for the study of 
the grammar of any language; for the expression 
of thought, in whatever language, follows well- 
established lines. The study of grammar, then, 
prepares the student for the study of any other 
language ; it is one of the means of ridding our 
common speech of some of its worst errors ; and it 
affords the student models of elegant and powerful 
sentence-structure. 

A still more valuable result of the study of gram- 



vi PREFACE 

mar is the gain in the student's reasoning power. 
No other branch in the school curriculum holds 
such possibilities. History, geography, and spelling 
are memory subjects ; arithmetic alone approaches 
grammar in the opportunity presented of making 
clear, careful thinkers. The instructor who teaches 
grammar with this end in view will train pupils to a 
shrewdness that looks below the surfaces of things, 
and to soundness of judgment that is the foundation 
of lasting success. 

This book is planned for use in the last two years 
of the grammar-school course. ^ The principal lan- 
guage work of these years will be grammar study ; 
but practice in composition-writing is not neglected. 
Instead of being injected into the grammar text, 
and so breaking the continuity of the subject, the 
composition lessons are placed at the back of the 
book, references through the grammar text indicat- 
ing when they are to be used. Part I of the Gram- 
mar and the first thirty lessons in Composition are 
intended for the first year, and Part II of the Gram- 
mar and the last thirty lessons in Composition for 
the last year of the two years' course which the book 

provides. 

W. F. Webster. 

Minneapolis, 1906. 

1 It is because grammar makes so heavy demands upon the stu- 
dent that its study should be delayed as late as possible. The best 
opinion now seems agreed that technical grammar should not be 
undertaken before the seventh year of school. See The Teaching of 
English by Carpenter, Baker, and Scott, page 146, et seq. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



GRAMMAR 
PART I 



PAGE 

Sentences 1 

Subjects, Predicates, Complements. 

Modifiers 26 

Words, Phrases, Clauses. 

Classes of Sentences 52 



PART II 

Nouns and Pronouns . 87 

Adjectives 119 

Verbs 126 

Adverbs 183 

Prepositions . . . 187 

Conjunctions 189 

COMPOSITION 

Composition Lessons 197 

Index 261 



GRAMMAR. 

PART I. 



SECTION 1. AN IDEA. 

A teacher said to her class, " I have something 
in my hand. I wish you to guess what it is. It is 
white. It is small. It is round. It is useful. It is 
hght. Who can guess ? " '^ It is a crayon/' answered 
one of the pupils. The words she had used — small, 
white, round, useful, hght — express attributes, or 
qualities of crayon. By uniting these attributes in 
the mind, each pupil made up a picture of a crayon. 
Such a mind-picture is called an idea. 

SECTION 2. EXERCISE. 

Tell what attributes unite to make the idea of 
sea, sky, forest, stream, plain, cloud, ice, steam, 
smoke, stone. Be sure to select those which, added 
together, will make a good mental picture of each 
object. 

SECTION 3. EXERCISE. 

On a small piece of paper write the names of ten 
attributes of an object. Select good ones. Be sure 
not to name the object. Exchange these slips. Each 
may then tell the name of the object described on 
the slip of paper he has. 

SECTION 4. A SENTENCE. 

When any one thinks " The rose is fragrant," he 
unites the idea of "rose" with the idea of " f ra- 



2 GRAMMAR 

grance." Such a union of two ideas makes a thought. 
When this thought is expressed in words, these 
words form a sentence. " The rose is fragrant/' 
then, is a sentence. 

In the sentence, ^'Trixie is playful," the word 
" Trixie " names that of which something is thought 
and said ; it is called the subject of the sentence. 
The word "playful" tells what attribute is asserted 
or predicated ^ of the subject " Trixie " ; it is called 
the predicate ^ attribute of the sentence. The word 
" is " asserts the relation existing between the sub- 
ject and predicate attribute. It is used to link or 
couple the subject and predicate attribute ; it is 
called the copula.^ The copula and the predicate 
attribute form the predicate of the sentence. 

A SENTENCE IS THE EXPRESSION OF A COMPLETE THOUGHT IN 
WORDS. 2 

THE SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE NAMES THAT OF WHICH SOMETHING 
IS ASSERTED. 

THE PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE OF A SENTENCE NAMES THAT WHICH 
IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT. 

THE COPULA OF A SENTENCE ASSERTS THE RELATION BETWEEN 
THE SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 

THE PREDICATE OF A SENTENCE IS THAT PART OF IT WHICH BOTH 
ASSERTS AND TELLS WHAT IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT. 

SECTION 5. EXERCISE. 

In each of the following sentences, select the sub- 
ject and predicate. Separate the predicate into 
copula and predicate attribute. 

1. The Amazon is broad. 3. The Andes are high. 

2. Plains are level. 4. The Indians were friendly. 

1 For the primary meaning- of these words see the dictionary. These 
primary definitions will help you to understand what these words mean in 
grammar. 

2 For the rule for the use of capitals, see page 259, 1, 1. 



NOUNS 3 

5. The settlers became sus- 17. Living is loving, 
picious. 18. A child will be happy. 

6. Their arrows were poi- 19. The student becomes 
soned. wise. 

7. The colonists grew fearful. 20. Beethoven was deaf. 

8. Flowers are beautiful. 21. Milton was bhnd. 

9. The rose is fragrant. 22. Byron was lame. 

10. Pines are healthful. 23. Holmes was humorous. 

11. The forest is peaceful. 24. Emerson was wise. 

12. The sea looks rough. 25. Lowell was witty. 

13. Sea-breezes are refresh- 26. Charity is beautiful, 
ing. 27. Stinginess is ugly. 

14. The frost is here. 28. Courage is noble. 

15. The woods are sere. 29. Wrestling is exciting. 

16. The blue jay is noisy. 30. Singing is enjoyable. 

SECTION 6. EXERCISE. 

Supply copulas and predicate attributes to the fol- 
lowing subjects : — 

1. My mother 3. Dickens 5. Rivers 7. Warships 

2. The birds 4. Trees 6. The leaves 8. Rover 

9. New York 10. A graceful spire 

SECTION 7. EXERCISE. 

Supply copulas and subjects to the following 
predicate attributes : — 

1. easy 3. brilliant 5. expensive 7. helpful 

2. high 4. noble 6. wide 8. light 

9. jolly 10. honorable 

SECTION 8. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 197, 
Section 1.) 

SECTION 9. NOUNS. 

In Section 5, think what each subject names. Tell 
which subjects name persons ; actions ; qualities of 
mind ; objects in nature. 



4 GRAMMAR 

Though these words are not all names of things 
which we can see, hear, or know through the senses, 
they are all names of things about which we can 
think. They are names of objects.^ Names of 
objects are nouns. 

A NOUN IS A WORD THAT NAMES AN OBJECT. 
SECTION 10. EXERCISE. 

In Sections 5 and 6, select the nouns, and give the 
reason for calHng each word a noun. This exercise 
may be continued with other lessons. 

SECTION 11. PRONOUNS. 

(a) Watt invented the steam engine, but he did not 
perfect it. 

(b) To be square in sports is sometimes hard, but it 
is manly. 

(c) Blessed is the man who has found his work. 
What is a noun ? What word in (a) represents the noun 

Watt without naming it? What word means steam 
engine, but does not name it ? Neither of the words is a 
noun, because neither names an object, though each repre- 
sents an object. In (b) what one word stands for the 
words, " To be square in sports" ? This little word does 
not definitely name the idea which it represents. What 
words in (c) represent objects without naming them as 
nouns do ? These words are pronouns.^ 

The difference between nouns and pronouns may be 
understood if you keep in mind the fact that when a noun 
stands all alone, it names a definite idea. "Football," 
for example, names a very popular game ; " Benedict 
Arnold " names a very unpopular man. These words are 
nouns. " It " or " that " or " they" does not suggest im- 
mediately any definite subject of thought. " I do not care 
for it " may mean " I do not care for some dish at table, 

^ An object is " anything that is perceived, known, thought of, or sig- 
nified." — Century Dictionary. 

2 Look in a dictionary for the primary meaning of the prefix /jro. 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 5 

or for football, or for one of a thousand other things." If 
the word "it "should be seen in a sentence on *' football" 
the word would probably stand for the game. A noun 
names an object; but a pronoun does not name an object; 
it only represents it. 

A PRONOUN IS A WORD THAT REPRESENTS AN OBJECT, BUT DOES 
NOT NAME IT. 

The pronouns most often used are the different forms of 

I, you, he, she, it, who, which, what, that. (See Sec- 
tion 165.) 

SECTION 12. EXERCISE. 

Select the nouns and pronouns in the following 
sentences : — 

1. If you would be well served, you must serve yourself. 

2. Placing her hand on the cushion, her foot in the hand 
of her husband, 

Gayly, with joyous laugh, Priscilla mounted her pal- 

frey 

3. " Nothing is wanting now," he said, with a smile, 
" but the distaff; 

Then you would be in truth my queen, my beautiful 
Bertha." 

4. Every hour has its task or pleasure. 

5. Down through the golden leaves the sun was pouring 
his splendor. 

6. The little meadow violet lifts its cup of blue. 

7. We deceive ourselves oftener than others deceive us. 

8. The stream wears a smooth bed for itself. 

9. For he who fights and runs away 
May live to fight another day. 

10. Oh, sleep ! it is a gentle thing. 
Beloved from pole to pole. 

II. He, who ascends to mountain-tops, shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapped in clouds and snow. 
12. He was chubby and plump — a right jolly old elf ; 
I laughed when I saw him, in spite of myself ; 
A wink of his eye, and a twist of his head. 
Soon gave me to know I had nothing to dread. 



6 GRAMMAR 

He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle, 
And away they all flew like the down of a thistle. 

SECTION 13. EXERCISE. 

Frame ten sentences, using the following pro- 
nouns : I, themselves, that, which, whom, it, her, 
this, my, him. 

SECTION 14. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 199, Sec- 
tion 2.) 

SECTION 15. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

Select the nouns and pronouns in the two para- 
graphs beginning at the bottom of page 208; and 
name the word which each pronoun represents. 

SECTION 16. KINDS OF PREDICATE ATTRIBUTES. 

In Section 5, point out the words that denote 
qualities of objects. Most of the attributes there 
asserted of the objects are qualities. Study the 
following sentences, to learn what other ideas the 
predicate attribute may denote : — 

(a) Deer are bounding. 

(b) The sky is blue. 

(c) The cut flowers are withered. 

(d) Dutch shoes are wooden. 

(e) Dutch shoes are of wood. 

(f) The Washington Elm was in Cambridge. 

(g) That wonderful child is Helen Keller. 
(h) Raphael was a painter. 

Separate these sentences into their three parts, — sub- 
ject, copula, and predicate attribute. What attribute is 
asserted of Deer in (a) ? It is an attribute of action. 
What does the predicate attribute in (b) denote ? in (c) ? 
in (d) ? What two words in (e) form the predicate attri- 
bute ? What do they denote ? What does the predicate 



EXERCISE 7 

attribute of (f) denote? In (g), what words name or 
identify *' That wonderful child " ? When the predicate 
attribute identifies the subject, it is called an attribute of 
identification. In (h), what word classifies Raphael? 
What would be a good name for this attribute ? 

When a noun is used as a predicate attribute, all the 
attributes or qualities that together make up the idea 
named by the noun are asserted of the subject. In the 
sentence, " Jack is funny," only one attribute is asserted 
of " Jack." But in the sentence, " Jack is a boy," all 
the attributes that together make up the idea of "boy" 
are asserted of "Jack"; for example. Jack is young, 
small, lively, talkative, boastful, generous, and all the 
other qualities that together make up the idea of a real boy. 

The predicate attributes most commonly used are those 
of action, condition, quality, material, location, identifica- 
tion, and classification. 

Nouns used as predicate attributes in most cases name 
attributes of identification or classification. 

When a noun is a predicate attribute, it is often called a 
predicate noun. 

A predicate attribute may be one word, or it may be 
several words. 

SECTION 17. EXERCISE. 

In the following" sentences, select the subjects, 
predicate attributes, and copulas. Tell what each 
of the attributes denotes. In studying the lesson it 
would be well to ask yourselves these questions : — 

1 . What is the sentence about ? 

2. What names the subject of the thought ? 

3. What does the sentence tell me about the subject of 
the thought ? 

4 What word or words join the subject with the pre- 
dicate attribute, and make the assertion ? 

The answer to the second question is the subject of the 
sentence ; the answer to the third is the attribute ; and 
the answer to the fourth is the copula. 



8 GRAMMAR 

1. Cathedrals are impressive. 

2. The clouds are fleecy. 

3. A musical voice is a delight. 

4. These sentences seem short. 

5. The lesson is easy. 

6. The garden will be gay. 

7. Berries will be plentiful. 

8. The cloudy sky is sad and gray. 

9. The white birch is a beautiful tree. 

10. Violets and dandelions are in bloom. 

11. November woods are bare and still. 

12. An icy hand is on the land. 

13. Oliver Cromwell was an Englishman. 

14. That sweet-faced woman is Frances Willard. 

15. Truth is within ourselves. 

16. The year is at the spring. 

17. Day is at the morn. 

18. The lark is on the wing. 

19. God is in His world. 

20. Silence is a great peacemaker. 

21. Helen Hunt Jackson was the Indian's friend. 

22. " Ramona " is her greatest novel. 

23. The warmest coats are of fur. 

24. The finest churches are of stone. 

25. The bird of Paradise is of glorious plumage. 

SECTION 18. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 200, 
Section 3.) 

SECTION 19. EXERCISE. 

Separate the sentences below into their two parts : 
subject and predicate. Then separate the predicate 
into its two elements: copula and predicate attri- 
bute. This is called the analysis of a sentence. 

A predicate of this form — copula and predicate 
First Type of attribute — is called a predicate of the first 

Predicate, type. 



GROUP SUBJECTS 9 

Model analysis. " Example is the school of mankind " 
is a sentence, because it is the expression of a complete 
thought in words. 

" Example " is the subject, because it names that of 
which something is asserted. 

" Is the school of mankind " is the predicate, because 
it both asserts, and tells what is asserted of the subject. 

" The school of mankind " is the predicate attribute, 
because it names that which is asserted of the subject. 

"Is" is the copula, because it asserts the relation 
between the subject and the predicate attribute. 

MODEL FOR WRITTEN ANALYSIS. 
SUBJECT. PREDICATE. 



COPULA. PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 



Example is the school of mankind. 

Edison is a great inventor. 

1. Edison is a great inventor. 

2. Mahogany is a beautiful wood. 

3. Florence Nightingale was a noble woman. 

4. Automobiles are a recent invention. 

5. Lowell was the son of a minister. 

6. Pennsylvania is the coal-bin of the United States. 

7. Rome was the capital of the world. 

8. Lew Wallace is the author of " Ben Hur." 

9. Shakespeare is the greatest author of all time. 
10. Gold is the standard of the world's money. 
IL Every flower is a hint of God's beauty. 

12. No good thing is failure. 

13. No bad thing is success. 

SECTION 20. A GROUP OF WORDS AS THE SUBJECT. 

In the sentences of the preceding lessons, the sub- 
jects have been nouns or pronouns. Study the sen- 
tences in this lesson to find whether the subject is 
always a noun or a pronoun. 



10 GRAMMAR 

(a) To be up and doing is a joy. 

(b) Whatever Abraham Lincoln said was earnest and 
sincere. 

(c) To feel an honest joy at the success of another is 
noble. 

In (a), of what is the assertion made that it is a joy? 
What words, then, express the subject of the thought ? Is 
there a noun in the subject ? In (b), the assertion is that 
something was earnest and sincere. What ? Repeat the 
group of words used to express the subject of the thought, 
What does (c) assert is noble ? What, then, is the subject 
of the sentence ? 

In some sentences, the subject is not a noun or 
pronoun ; it is a group of words. All the words of 
the group are required to name, or represent, that 
of which something is asserted. Such a group of 
words has the same use as a noun or pronoun and 
may be called a substantive phrase, or clause.^ 

SECTION 21. EXERCISE. 

Give both the oral and the written analysis of the 
sentences below, following the model in Section 19. 

What is the subject of the thought? 

What is asserted of the subject ? 

What word joins the subject with the predicate attribute ? 

1. Well begun is good. 

2. Well done is better. 

3. To catch fish in a tub is unsportsmanlike. 

4. What Washington did was wise. 

5. To guess and to know are two different things. 

6. Not to weep over a dish of peeled onions is difficult. 

7. To gossip about one's neighbors is a common, but 
contemptible fault. 

8. To be angry with a door or a woodbox is boylike. 

^ A substantive is a word, or group of words, that designates an object 
of thoug-ht. For definitions of phrase and clause, see Sections 58 and 118. 



COPULA AND PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE 11 

9. The best preparation for good work tomorrow is to 

do good work today. 
10. To know all is to forgive all. 

SECTION 22. EXERCISE. 

Write five sensible sentences, with copulas and 
predicate attributes, and with nouns as subjects. 
Write five more with groups of words as subjects. 
Be ready to separate these sentences into their three 
elements. 

SECTION 23. COPULA AND PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 

(a) The brook is murmuring, (f ) The brook murmurs. 

(b) The waters are dancing, (g) The waters dance. 

(c) A storm was raging. (h) A storm raged. 

(d) Twilight is deepening. (i) Twilight deepens. 

(e) The owl is hooting. (j) The owl hoots. 

In (a), (b), (c), (d), and (e), point out each copula and 
each predicate attribute, two separate words in each sen- 
tence. Opposite each sentence is another which asserts 
the same predicate attribute of the same subject. In (f), 
the attribute, murmuring, is asserted of the brook just 
as truly as in (a). In (g), what is asserted of the subject ? 
In (h) ? (i) ? (j) ? What one word, then, in each of the 
last five sentences, both asserts and tells what attribute 
is asserted ? Since each of these words is both copula and 
predicate attribute, it may be called a copula-attribute. 

The union of the copula with the predicate attri- 
bute gives a new type of predicate. So far the 
predicates have contained the two elements as sep- 
arate words, — copula and predicate attri- second Type 
bute. These elements are to be found in °*P"^i«ate. 
predicates of this second type as in the first; but 
the difference is this, — that in the second type of 
predicate the copula and the predicate attribute are 
united in one word. The predicate of this type is a 



12 



GRAMMAR 



copula-attribute ; while the predicate of the first type 
is a copula and a predicate attribute. 



llRST IyPE. subject. 




predicate. 




COPULA. 


PREDICATE A'lTKIBUTE 


The tide 
The wind 


was 
is 


rising, 
rising. 


Second Type. subject. 




predicate. 




COPULA-ATTRIBUTE. 


The tide 
The wind 




rose, 
rises. 



SECTION 24. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 201, 
Section 4.) 

section 25. EXERCISE. 

Unite the copula and the predicate attribute of 
each of the following sentences into one word. Ana- 
lyze the sentences you have made, using the follow- 
ing model : — 

Model. " The boy runs " is a sentence, because it is 
the expression of a complete thought in words. 

" The boy " is the subject, because it names that of 
which something is asserted. 

" Runs " is the copula-attribute, because it asserts and 
tells what is asserted of the subject. 



1. Mozart was composing. 

2. Raphael was painting. 

3. Angelo was designing. 

4. We are reciting. 

5. The tide was rising. 

6. Rain was falling. 

7o Washington was pray- 
ing. 



8. Trees are growing. 

9. Maize is sprouting. 

10. The bells are ringing. 

11. The snow is melting. 

12. The church was burn- 
ing. 

13. The fog was thicken- 
ing. 



VERBS 13 

14. The whistle was blow- 17. The settlers are return- 
ing, ing. 

15. Danger was threaten- 18. Men are forking, 
ing. 19. Women were weeping. 

16. The enemy was retreat- 20. Duty is calling, 
ing. 

SECTION 26. VERBS. 

(a) The sky is clouded. 

(b) The clouds seem threatening. 

(c) The wind whistles. 

(d) The rain will be welcome. 

All these sentences contain subject, copula, and predi- 
cate attribute. In one of the sentences given, the word 
that asserts also tells what is asserted. Read it, and point 
out the word that asserts and also contains the predicate 
attribute. In each of the other sentences, point out the 
word or the group of words that asserts the relation be- 
tween the subject and the predicate attribute. Is it pos- 
sible to make a sentence without a word that asserts ? A 
word used to assert, whether it does or does not contain 
the predicate attribute, is called a verb.^ 

In the sentences at the head of this lesson, which verbs 
are used to unite the subject and the predicate attribute ? 

When the principal use of a verb is that of copula, it is 
called a copulative verb. 

Most copulative verbs do some other work besides 
uniting the subject and predicate attribute. Is, in its 
various forms, is the only verb whose use may be solely 
to connect the subject and predicate attribute ; it is gener- 
ally a pure copula. 

Seem in (b) does more than connect the subject and the 
predicate attribute; it does not say that clouds are 
threatening. It makes a modified assertion. So all copu- 
lative verbs except is do something more than connect 
subject and predicate attribute; but their principal work 
is to connect. For this reason they are called copulative 
verbs. 

1 Look in a dictionary for the derivation of the word verb. Do you 
know any reason why this name should be selected for the asserting word 
of a sentence ? 



14 GRAMMAR 

The copulative verbs most often used are is, are, seems, 
looks, and appears. 

In (c), what is the attribute asserted of the wind ? The 
verb is both copula and predicate attribute. When the 
verb itself contains the predicate attribute, it is called an 
attributive verb. 

Whenever the copula and the predicate attribute are 
different words, the verb is copulative. When they are 
united in one word, the verb is attributive. 

In which sentence do you find more than one word used 
to make the assertion ? A group of words, then, may be 
used just like a single word in making an assertion. Such 
a group is called a verb-phrase. 

A VERB IS A WORD THAT ASSERTS. 

A VERB-PHRASE IS A GROUP OF WORDS THAT ASSERTS. 

In saying that a verb is a word that asserts, it is intended 
to regard a question or a command as a kind of assertion. 

A COPULATIVE VERB IS ONE WHOSE PRDTGIPAL USE IS THAT OF A 
COPULA. 

AN ATTRIBUTIVE VERB IS ONE THAT CONTAINS IN ITSELF A PREDI- 
CATE ATTRIBUTE. 

Verb-phrases may be copulative or attributive exactly 
the same as verbs. 

SECTION 27. EXERCISE. 

Make a list of five copulative verbs ; of ten attribu- 
tive verbs. Write ^Ye sensible sentences containing 
copulative verbs ; three containing attributive verbs. 
Do not use any of the verbs you have put in your 
lists. 

Is a predicate of the first or second type when a 
copulative verb is used ? 'Is it of the first type when 
an attributive verb is used ? 

SECTION 28. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 202, 
Section 5.) 



COMPLEMENTS 15 

SECTION 29. EXERCISE. 

Tell the types of the following predicates. Classify 
the verbs as copulative or attributive. If attributive, 
tell what attribute is asserted of the subject. 

1. The violet is sweet. 

2. Pocahontas was an Indian girl. 

3. To do one's best is worthy. 

4. The cost of crown jewels seems fabulous. 

5. That great men do silly things at times is true. 

6. Robins run. 

7. Woodpeckers climb. 

8. The monkey laughs. 

9. The sun sets. 

10. The wind dies. 

11. The world seems silent. 

12. President Roosevelt works. 

13. The cock is crowing, 
The stream is flowing, 
The small birds twitter, 
The lake doth glitter, 

The green field sleeps in the sun. 

SECTION 30. COMPLEMENTS. 

Write in two groups the sentences in Section 29. In 
one group, write the sentences containing predicates of 
the first type; in the other, those containing predicates 
of the second type. 

Name the three elements that every sentence must 
contain. What two elements are combined in one word in 
predicates of the second type ? What name is given to it 
as an element of the sentence ? In such sentences the verb 
alone makes a complete assertion about the subject. Such 
a verb is called a complete verb. 

Point out the verb in each predicate of the first type. 
In these predicates, does the verb alone tell what is 
asserted of the subject ? In other words, does it contain 
the predicate attribute ? Read these sentences aloud, 



16 GRAMMAR 

omitting all of the words that follow the verb. Each sen- 
tence then lacks one of the three necessary elements of 
every sentence: it has no predicate attribute. The verb 
alone does not make the complete assertion about the 
subject. Such a verb is called an incomplete verb. Verb- 
phrases may be complete or incomplete the same as verbs. 
It is plain that a third element must always be added to 
the incomplete verb to tell what is asserted of the subject. 
Since this element completes the meaning of the verb, it 
is called a complement. 

A COMPLEMENT IS AN ELEMENT OF A SENTENCE THAT COMPLETES 
THE ASSERTION MADE BY AN INCOMPLETE VERB. 

In all predicates of the first type, is the verb copulative 
or attributive ? complete or incomplete ? Since in all 
predicates of this type the complement of the verb names 
an attribute of the subject, it is called an attribute com- 
plement. Up to this time, this element of a sentence has 
been called a predicate attribute. All attribute comple- 
ments are predicate attributes; but not all predicate 
attributes are attribute complements. 

AN ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT IS AN ELEMENT OF A SENTENCE THAT 
COMPLETES THE ASSERTION MADE BY AN INCOMPLETE VERB, AND 
NAMES AN ATTRIBUTE OF THE SUBJECT. 

SECTION 31. EXERCISE. 

Point out the predicate attributes of the sentences 
given in Sections 5 and 29, and tell which are 
attribute complements. 

SECTION 32. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the sentences below, following the model 
in Section 19. Use the term attribute complement 
instead of predicate attribute. Next classify the 
verbs and verb-phrases as copulative or attributive. 

1. Experience is expensive. 

2. The plays of Shakespeare are instructive. 

3. To talk with great men is a liberal education. 

4. Honesty is the best policy. 



OBJECT COMPLEMENT 17 

5. Rubies are scarce. 

6. Good manners are a source of wealth. 

7. To study the stars is fascinating. 

8. What time we sleep is well spent. 

9. To use a dictionary is a sign of culture. 

10. Snow is delicate crystals. 

11. To cheat an ignorant man is dishonorable coward- 
ice. 

12. The way was pathless and long. 

13. The goal was more dreary yet. 

14. Their only food was a pittance of Indian corn. 

15. The way was through the dense forest. 

SECTION 33. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 203, Sec- 
tion 6.) 

SECTION 34. THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 

(a) Many hands make light work. 

(b) March brings wind. 

(c) April brings showers. 

(d) April showers bring May flowers. 

(e) Longfellow wrote Hiawatha. 

(f) He loved children. 

(g) The nightingale's notes close the eye of day. 
(h) The dead leaves fall. 

In this lesson, there is only one complete verb. Find it. 
Point out the incomplete verb in each of the other sen- 
tences. Are they copulative or attributive ? Tell what 
words are used to complete the meaning of each. Show 
that each of these complements names the receiver of the 
action asserted by the verb. Such a complement is called 
an object complement.^ 

AN OBJECT COMPLEMENT IS AN ELEMENT OP A SENTENCE THAT 
COMPLETES THE ASSERTION MADE BY AN INCOMPLETE VERB, AND 
NAMES THE RECEHTER OF THE ACTION. 

Note. — There are some transitive verbs whose mean- 

^ Look in a dictionary and learn the meaning of the Latin words from 
which the word object is derived. 



18 GRAMMAR 

ing is such that their object complements do not in the 
ordinary sense name the receiver of the action ; as in the 
sentences, " I have my lesson," "April brings flowers." 
In such sentences, however, the action which the verb 
asserts passes over to the object complement as it does 
in all other cases, and in a grammatical sense the object 
complement receives it. 

Third Type ^ predicate composed of copula-attri- 

of Predicate. \)^f^Q ^j^d objcct Complement is a predicate 
of the third type. 

SUBJECT. PREDICATE. 



COPULA-ATTRIBUTE. OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 



The nightingale's notes close the eye of day. 

What elements make the first type of predicate ? the 
second ? 

SECTION 35. EXERCISE. 

Write five sensible sentences containing* predicates 
of the first type. Find five with predicates of the 
second type. Frame five sentences with predicates 
of the third type, in which the following words shall 
be used as object complements : honor, Cape Horn, 
the stars, rainbow, Alexander Hamilton. 

SECTION 36. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. From this time the predicates of sentences 
in an exercise will not be of any one type. Look 
out for all kinds of predicates. 

Model. " The nightingale's notes close the eye of 
day" is a sentence, because . . . 

" The nightingale's notes " is the subject, because . . . 
" Close the eye of day " is the predicate, because . . . 
" Close " is the copula-attribute, because . . . 
" The eye of day" is the object complement, because it 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 19 

completes the assertion made by an incomplete verb, and 
names the receiver of the action. 

MODEL FOR WRITTEN ANALYSIS. 

Subject The nightingale's notes 

Predicate close the eye of day 

Copula-Attribute close 

Object Complement the eye of day 

1. Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. 

2. The moon causes the tides. 

8. Edison invented the phonograph. 

4. Many persons inherit wealth. 

5. They are considered lucky. 

6. Wealth is a doubtful fortune. 

7. Gladstone was an eminent scholar. 

8. Pocahontas saved Captain John Smith. 

9. Louis XIV was a spendthrift. 

10. Health is man's greatest wealth. 

11. The real heroes of the war are the "great, brave, 
patient, nameless People." 

12. The sw^eetest type of heaven is home. 

13. Every great thought alters the world. 

14. The top of honor is a slippery place. 

15. One spring wind unbinds the mountain snow. 

16. The great mind knows the power of gentleness. 

17. A small leak will sink a ship. 

18. Kindness shall win my love. 

19. The old clock of the town 

Strikes night's last hour. The morning's crown 
Touches the silence. 

SECTION 37. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

(a) Autumn paints the maples. 

(b) The maples are painted by Autumn. 

(c) The bluebirds sing sweet songs of spring. 

(d) Sweet songs of spring are sung by the bluebirds. 

(e) Fresh winds purify the air. 

(f) The air is purified by fresh winds. 



20 GRAMMAR 

Have both sentences of each pair the same meaning ? 
In both, is the action done by the same persons or things ? 
Show that each verb asserts an action received by an 
object. In which sentence of each pair does the object 
complement name the receiver of the action ? In the 
other sentence, the same receiver of the same action is 
named by what element ? 

All these verbs assert actions received by objects, 
and all are called transitive verbs.^ In the sentences, 
Transitive ^^^ receiver of the action is named by the 
Verbs. subject OP by the object complement. A 

verb is transitive, then, if the subject or the ob- 
ject complement names the receiver of the action 
asserted. 

Not all verbs assert action ; and of those that do, 
not all assert action received by an object. If a verb 
Intransitive does not asscrt actiou received by an ob- 
verbs. j^^,^^ j^- jg ^^^ transitive, and is called an 

intransitive verb. Study the following sentences : — 

(a) The laughing streams awake. 

(b) Our mother was a beautiful girl. 

(c) Her word is truth. 

(d) Friends cheer. 

(e) Coleridge talked. 

Point out the verbs that assert action. Is the action 
asserted by any one of them received by an object? 
Point out the verbs that do not assert action. Are any of 
these verbs, then, transitive ? 

A TRANSITIVE VERB IS ONE THAT ASSERTS AN ACTION RECEIVED 
BY SOME OBJECT. 

The object that receives the action may be named by 
the subject or the object complement. 

AN INTRANSITIVE VERB IS ONE THAT DOES NOT ASSERT AN ACTION 
RECEIVED BY AN OBJECT. 

^ Look in a dictionary for the primary meaning of the word transitive. 



THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 21 

Verb-phrases may be transitive or intransitive the same 
as verbs. 

SECTION 38. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 203, 
Section 7.) 

SECTION 39. EXERCISE. 

In the following sentences, note the two uses of 
the same verb : — 

(a) The fire burned in the grate. 

(b) The fire burned the child's fingers. 

(c) The child's fingers were burned by the fire. 

(d) Millet painted. 

(e) He painted the Angehis. 

(f) The Angelas was painted by Millet. 

(g) Shakespeare wrote. 

(h) He wrote the world's greatest dramas, 
(i) The world's greatest dramas were written by 
Shakespeare. 

Which verbs are transitive ? Which intransitive ? Give 
reason in each case. The use, then, is what makes the verb 
transitive or intransitive. 

SECTION 40. EXERCISE. 

Classify the verbs in Section 36 as copulative or 
attributive, transitive or intransitive. 

SECTION 41. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 204, 
Section 8.) 

SECTION 42. THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT. 

The following sentences show that the meaning 
of a sentence may be changed by changing the order 
of the w^ords. In one sentence of each pair as given 
is an element not yet studied. 



22 GRAMMAK 

(a) Tom Sawyer painted the fence white. 

(b) Tom Sawyer painted the white fence. 

(c) Spring rains wash the gardens clean, 

(d) Spring rains wash the clean gardens. 

(e) Snow turns the brown fields white. 

(f) Snow turns the brown white fields. 

(g) A smile makes a sad heart glad. 
(h) A smile makes a glad sa^ heart. 

Do the two sentences of each pair contain the same 
words ? Have they the same meaning ? Which sentence, 
(a) or (b), asserts that the fence was white as a result of 
the painting ? Which that it was white before it was 
painted ? What word in (c) and (d) is the object com- 
plement ? What word names an attribute of gardens ? In 
which sentence is this attribute caused by the action 
named by the verb ? Show that the sentences (f ) and (h) 
make impossible assertions. Show that the attribute of 
the object complement in (e) and in (g) is a result of the 
action expressed by the verb. 

If a word names an attribute of an object comple- 
objective ment, and this attribute is the result of the 
Complement, ^^tion asserted by the verb, it is called an 
objective complement. 

Two questions must be answered to determine 
whether a word is an objective complement : (1) 
Does the word name an attribute of the object 
complement? (2) Is this attribute the result of the 
action named by the verb ? If the word fulfills both 
these conditions, it is an objective complement. 

(a) I found the boy tired. 

(b) The work had made the boy tired. 

In both these sentences, "tired" is an attribute 
of "the boy," the object complement. In (a), the 
attribute " tired " is not the result of the action 



THE OBeJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 



23 



named by the verb ; therefore it is not an objective 
complement. In (b), the attribute is the result of 
the action named by the verb ; therefore it is an 
objective complement. 

(c) Adversity made him humblCo 

(d) Adversity (made humble) him. 

(e) Adversity humbled him. 

In (c) the verb "made" alone does not express 
the idea of the sentence. "Adversity made him" is 
not at all the thought intended. The verb " made " 
with the objective complement " humble " expresses 
the action upon him. This is seen in (d). This is 
just one action and can be expressed in one word, 
as it is in (e). So, too, the former sentence could 
be made to read " The work tired him," instead of 
" The work made him tired." 

AN OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT IS AN ELEMENT OF A SENTENCE THAT 
NAMES AN ATTRIBUTE OF THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT, RESULTING 
FROM THE ACTION ASSERTED BY THE VERB. 

The objective complement is another Fourth Type 
element in a sentence, and gives us the ^^^"^cate. 
fourth type of predicate. 



SUBJECT. 




PREDICATE. 




Adversity 
Congress 
The death of 
the queen 


COPULA- 
ATTRIBUTE. 

made 
rendered 

made 


OBJECT 
COMPLEMENT. 

him 
the plan 

Edward VII 


OBJECTIVE 
COMPLEMENT 

humble, 
useless. 

king. 



What are the other types of predicate ? When there is 
an objective complement in a sentence, is the verb trans- 
itive or intransitive ? copulative or attributive .^ Can 
there be an objective complement without an object 



24 GRAMMAR 

complement? What three elements are included in a 
predicate of the fourth type ? 

SECTION 43. EXEKCISE. 

Analyze the sentences below, according to the 
model. 

Model. " Adversity made him humble " is a sentence, 
because . . . 

"Adversity" is the subject, because . . . 

"Made him humble" is the predicate, because . . . 

"Made" is the copula-attribute, because . . . 

"Him" is the object complement, because . . . 

"Humble" is an objective complement, because it 
names an attribute of the object complement resulting 
from the action asserted by the verb. 

MODEL FOR WRITTEN ANALYSIS. 

Subject Adversity 

Predicate made him humble 

Copula-Attribute made 

Object Complement him 

Objective Complement humble 

1. He pumped the well dry. 

2. The boy bent the stick straight. 

3. Good fortune ha.s made him a fool. 

4. True hope is swift. 

5. Gentians roll their fringes tight. 

6. Content makes poor men rich. 

7. Discontent makes rich men poor. 

8. The evening painted the snow a golden red. 

9. The mother made the child her idol. 

10. The people elected Johnson vice-president. 

11. The death of Lincoln made him president. 

12. Morning's laugh sets all the crags alight. 

13. A good carpenter planes boards smooth. 



TYPES OF PREDICATES 25 



SECTION 44. COMPOSITION. 



(For the lesson in Composition, see page 205, Sec- 
tion 9.) 

SECTION 45. TYPES OF PREDICATES. 

You have now learned the four types of predicates. 
A predicate may be composed of copula and attri- 
bute complement ; copula-attribute ; copula-attribute 
and object complement ; or copula-attribute, object 
complement, and objective complement. 

TYPE. SUBJECT. PREDICATE. 

1. Subject Copula and Attribute Comple- 

ment 

2. Subject Copula-Attribute 

3. Subject Copula-Attribute and Object Com- 

plement 

4. Subject Copula-Attribute, Object Comple- 

ment, and Objective Comple- 
ment 

Write a sensible sentence illustrating each type of 
predicate. 

SECTION 46. EXERCISE. 

Separate the following* sentences into subject and 
predicate. Tell the elements of the predicate, and 
name the type to which it belongs. 

Classify the verbs as transitive or intransitive, 
copulative or attributive. 

1. A horse is a fine lady among animals. 

2. The voyage of the Mayflower proved a stormy one. 

3. The surf ran high. 

4. Iron is a manly metal. 

5. Jan van Eyck was the inventor of oil-painting. 

6. Nettle-seed needs no sowing. 

7. God made all pleasures innocent. 



26 GRAMMAR 

8. A beautiful eye makes silence eloquent. 

9. An enraged eye makes beauty deformed, 

10. Kindness is the sunshine of the spiritual world. 

11. Education begins the gentleman. 

12. Reading, good company, and reflection finish him. 

13. The indulgence of revenge makes men savage and 
cruel. 

14. The greatest of virtues is common sense. 

15. The day seems long. 

16. I am the very pink of courtesy. 

17. Hope lives. 

18. The jay, the rook, the daw, 
Aid the full concert. 

19. The love-lorn nightingale mourn eth. 

20. A thing of beauty is a joy forever; 
Its loveliness increases. 

21. I crown the winter king. 

22. Mont Blanc is crowned monarch of mountains. 

SECTION 47. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 206, Sec- 
tion 10.) 

SECTION 48. MODIFIERS. 

You have learned to separate sentences into their 
elements. The next step is to separate these elements 
into parts, to find how they are made. 

(a) The lashing billows made a long report. 

(b) The setting sun slowly descended. 

If sentence (a) be stripped to its bare necessary ele- 
ments, it will read billows made report. Write these three 
words, and above each write the name of the element. 
What other words are used in the full sentence to modify, 
or change, the meaning of these bare elements ? Which 
word tells the kind of billows ? The makes lashing billows 
more definite. What two words modify the meaning of 
the object complement report? Read the two bare ele- 



MODIFIERS 27 

ments of sentence (b). Tell what words modify the mean- 
ing of each. 

A word that modifies the meaning of another word 
in a sentence is called a modifier. 

In (a), the complete subject of the sentence is not 
named until all the words, " The lashing billows," 
are used. The complete subject of (b) is complete and 
"The setting sun." All the words that to- Bare subject, 
gether name that of which something is asserted are 
called the complete subject. The one word which, 
stripped of its modifiers, forms the basis of the com- 
plete subject is called the bare subject.^ 

All the words in the assertion about the subject 
— the words that assert and those that tell what is 
asserted — are called the complete predi- complete and 
cate. The elements of the complete predi- Predicate. 
Gate, stripped of modifiers, are included in what is 
called the bare predicate. 

SECTION 49. EXERCISE. 

In the following sentences, point out the modifiers, 
and tell what element of the sentence is modified 
by each : — 

1. Small courtesies sweeten life. 

2. Small cheer and great welcome make a very merry 
feast. 

3. A thin meadow is soon mowed. 

4. The ripest fruit falls first. 

5. Somewhere the birds are singing evermore. 

6. I planted an old, dry, white, fairy seed. 

7. Its blossoms were magic golden flowers. 

8. The ripened fruit was a yellow jack-o'-lantern. 

1 Sometimes the subject of a sentence is a substantive phrase or clause 
(see Section 20). When a substantive phrase or clause is the subject it has 
the same use as a one-word subject, and the entire phrase or clause is the 
bare subject. 



28 GRAMMAR 

9. One plant bore a very large Thanksgiving pie. 
10. The forest dropped its festal robes. 

SECTION 50. EXERCISE. 

Find or make sentences with bare predicates of the 
following form: (1) an unmodified copula and pre- 
dicate attribute ; (2) an unmodified copula-attribute ; 
(3) an unmodified copula-attribute and object com- 
plement; and (4) an unmodified copula-attribute, 
object complement, and objective complement. 

Frame definitions of complete subject, bare sub- 
ject, complete predicate, and bare predicate. Give 
examples of each. 

SECTION 51. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences according to this 
model, and those previously given. 

Model. "The setting sun slowly descended" is a 

sentence. 

The complete subject is "The setting sun." 

The complete predicate is "slowly descended." 

The bare subject is "sun," modified bv the words 

"The" and "setting." 

The bare predicate is " descended," a copula-attribute. 

The predicate is, therefore, of the second type. 

The copula-attribute is modified by the word " slowly." 

1. Fame is very cheap. 

2. The gentle dew refreshes the parched grass. 

3. Great men are sincere. 

4. God's glory is his goodness. 

5. A constant friend is rare. 

6. Evil news rides post. 

7. An undevout astronomer is mad. 

8. A free country life makes strong, true men. 

9. A lazy man is a bad man. 

10. Guilt has quick ears. 

11. Pride is seldom delicate. 



ADJECTIVES 29 

12. The lonely pine waves its sombre boughs. 

13. Friendship is a sheltering tree. 

14. A clear conscience is a soft pillow. 

15. A sunny spirit quickly dispels angry frowns.. 

SECTION 52. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 209, 
Section 11.) 

SECTION 53. ADJECTIVES. 

Modifiers are divided into groups, or classes, ac- 
cording to their use. All the modifiers indicated by 
special type in the following sentences belong to the 
same class : — 

(a) The still, warm, misty, dreamy Indian summer 
cannot be truly painted.^ 

(b) Grant, determined and persevering, had carried on 
a vigorous, daring, and offensive campaign. 

(c) These victories caused much suffering and the loss 
• of many lives. 

What five words in (a) describe summer? What two 
words in (b) describe Grant? What words describe cam- 
paign? All these words, then, are modifiers of nouns. They 
are called adjectives. 

In (c) there are some words modifying the meaning of 
nouns that do not describe. These words, much, many. 
These, and the are adjectives. 

AN ADJECTHTE IS A WORD THAT MODIFIES THE MEANING OF A 
NOUN OR PRONOUN. 

(a) Sidney was courteous and kind. 

(b) The Father of Waters is calm and untroubled, 

(c) It is deep and broad. 

What words express qualities of Sidney? What element 
of the sentence do they form ? Attribute complements 
that name single attributes of the subject are Adjectives 
adjectives. What adjectives do you find in the bute^"m- 
predicate of (b) ? In (c), what words form the piement. 
^ For punctuation of a series of words, see page 259, V, 1. 



30 GRAMMAR 

attribute complement? These words, deep and broad, 
express attributes of the object represented by the pro- 
noun It. They are adjectives. 

An adjective is very often used as an attribute 
complement. When it is so used, it is by many called 
a predicate adjective. 

SECTION 54. EXERCISE. 

In the last paragraph on page 250, select the 
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. Tell the word 
which each pronoun represents, and what word each 
adjective modifies. 

SECTION 55. ADVERBS. 

Not all modifiers are adjectives. Most of those in 
the following sentences may be grouped in a differ- 
ent class because of their different use. 

(a) A brave man never dies. 

(b) Books are our most steadfast friends. 

(c) The days pass very rapidly. 

In (a) what word modifies the meaning of dies ? It 
adds an idea of time. A word that modifies the meaning 
of a verb is called an adverb.^ 

What word in (b) modifies the word steadfast ? What 
is steadfast? A word that modifies the meaning of an 
adjective is an adverb. 

What word in (c) modifies pass ? What is it then ? What 
word modifies the adverb that modifies pass ? A word that 
modifies an adverb is an adverb. 

AN ADVERB IS A WORD THAT MODIFIES THE MEANING OF A VERB, 
AN ADJECTIVE, OR AN ADVERB. 

Very rarely an adverb modifies a phrase. For an ex- 
ample, see sentence (a) in Section 263. 

1 See dictionary for the meaning- of the word adverb. Does the name 
seem suitable ? 



PHRASES 31 

SECTION 56. EXERCISE. 

In the following sentences, select the adverbs, tell- 
ing what each modifies, and whether the word modi- 
fied is a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 

1. Formerly men printed their books by hand. 

2. The ignorant foreigner finds too much freedom here. 

3. A wise man will always be a Christian. 

4. Youth comes but once in a lifetime. 

5. The majestic river floated on. 

6. Truth never hurts the teller. 

7. The tongue is ever turning to the aching tooth. 

8. Swing low, sweet chariot! 

9. I never was on the dull, tame shore, 

But I loved the great sea more and more, 
And backward flew to its billowy breast. 

SECTION 57. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 209, Sec- 
tion 12.) 

SECTION 58. PHRASES. 

Study the following groups of words : — 

(a) with fading music 

(b) on the rolling sea 

(c) will have been studying 

(d) to follow 

Are the words of each group related in meaning } Does 
a single one of the expressions contain a subject and a 
predicate .^ Such a group of words is called a phrase. 

The difference between a sentence and a phrase 
is this : a sentence always has a subject and a pred- 
icate, and makes an assertion ; a phrase never has a 
subject and a predicate, and does not make an asser- 
tion. 



32 GRAMMAR 

Frame sentences containing the phrases in (a), (b), (c), 
(d). In your sentences, what does the phrase (a) modify ? 
Is it, then, used Hke an adjective or an adverb ? What does 
(b) modify ? Is it used like an adjective or an adverb ? 
In your sentence, is (d) used as a noun, an adjective, or an 
adverb ? We find, then, that phrases are used as nouns, 
or verbs, or adjectives, or adverbs. 

In the following expressions, separate the phrases 
from the sentences : — 

(e) of red apples (i) they are to be eaten 

(f) apples are red (j) on the day appointed 

(g) to be eaten (k) along the homeward way 

(h) for eating (1) the children loitered along the 

homeward way 

A PHRASE IS A GROUP OF WORDS CONTAINING NO SUBJECT OR 
PREDICATE AND HAVING THE USE OF A SINGLE WORD.^ 

SECTION 59. USES OF PHRASES. 

You have learned that word modifiers are grouped 
in different classes according to their use. They 
may be adjectives or adverbs. Phrase modifiers are 
classified in the same way. 

(a) With fine wheaten bread was the leper fed. 

(b) With fine bread of wheat was the leper fed. 

(c) Cinderella's sisters treated her shabbily. 

(d) Cinderella's sisters treated her in a shabby manner. 

(e) The coloring on the tulips is extremely brilliant. 

(f ) The coloring on the tulips is brilliant in the highest 
degree. 

What phrase in (b) has the same use as wheaten in (a) ? 
The phrase is an adjective phrase. What modifier in (d) 
means the same as one in (c) ? What would be a good 
name for the phrase ? What is brilliant in (e) and (f) ? 
By what name would you call a modifier of brilliant ? 

1 For punctuation of phrases, see page 259, V, 5 and 6/ 



MODEL FOR WRITTEN ANALYSIS 33 

A phrase used to modify a noun or a pronoun is an 
adjective phrase. 

A phrase used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an 
adverb is an adverbial phrase. 

SECTION 60. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

Model. *' Idleness is the source of much evil " is a sen- 
tence, because . . . 

The complete subject is "Idleness." 

The complete predicate is " is the source of much evil.*' 

The bare subject is "idleness"; it is unmodified. 

The bare predicate is "is source," composed of the 
copula "is" and the attribute complement "source." 
The predicate, therefore, is of the first type. 

The attribute complement "source" is modified by the 
adjective "the" and the adjective phrase "of much evil." 

MODEL FOR WRITTEN ANALYSIS. 

Complete Subject Idleness 

Complete Predicate is the source of much evil 

Bare Subject Idleness 

Bare Predicate is source 

Copula is 

Attribute Complement source 

Modifiers of 

Attribute Complement the of much evil 

1. Men of great wealth do much good. 

2. Lafayette came at a fortunate time. 

3. Happiness is the natural flower of duty. 

4. A treaty is the promise of a nation. 

5. A good intention clothes itself with sudden power. 

6. Youth is full of pleasance. 

7. Age is full of care. 

8. The man w^ith a violin is a bore to the man with a 
flute. 



34 GRAMMAR 

9. The frost has bitten the heel of the going year. 

10. Opportunities never nibble twice at the same hook. 

11. The fields look rough with hoary dew. 

12. Upon the grass the frost lies white. 

13. The world is still deceived by ornament. 

14. A little nonsense, now and then. 
Is relished by the wisest men. 

15. The wild November comes at last 

Beneath a veil of rain. 

16. The searching eye of heaven is hid 
Behind the globe. 

17. The vain young night 
Trembles o'er her own beauty in the sea. 

18. Upon a pasture stone, 
Against the fading w^est, 
A small bird sings alone. 

SECTION 61. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 210, 
Section 13.) 

SECTION 62. PHKASES IN THE PBEDICATE. 

Sometimes a phrase in the predicate is an attri- 
bute complement ; sometimes it is an adverbial 
modifier. To tell in which way it is used, one needs 
to think carefully of the meaning of the sentence. 

(a) The nest is high. 

(b) The nest is in the tree. 

(c) The birds are playing in the tree. 

(d) The teacher is present. . 

(e) She is in the room. 

(f) We march in the room. 

(g) The President is friendly to all. 

(h) The President is of a friendly spirit. 

(i) Beethoven's early home was in Germany. 
(j) He moved to Austria. 



EXERCISES 35 

In (a), what is the attribute complement? This word 
names an attribute of place, or position. In (b), what 
phrase shows the position of the nest ? The phrase is, 
then, just as truly an attribute of position. So the phrase 
is the attribute complement of the sentence. 

The same phrase has a different use in (c). If the 
phrase were omitted in (b), would any assertion be made 
about the nest ? What necessary element would be 
omitted ? If the phrase were omitted in (c), would an 
assertion be made ? What phrase tells where they were 
playing ? Since it modifies a verb, it is an adverbial 
phrase. 

What is the attribute complement in (d) ? What phrase 
has the same use in (e) ? Show that the same words form 
an adverbial phrase in (f). 

Is the phrase in (h) adjective, adverbial, or attribute 
complement ? in (i) ? in (j) ? 

This rule may generally be followed : When the 
verb is attributive, a phrase in the predicate is a 
modifier ; when the verb is copulative, a phrase in 
the predicate is an attribute complement. As there 
are but fcAv copulative verbs, a close watch upon sen- 
tences containing any of them will guard against 
mistakes. 

SECTION 63. EXERCISE. 

Write five sentences containing copulative verbs 
completed by phrases. Write five sentences contain- 
ing attributive verbs modified by phrases. 

SECTION 64. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences according to the 
models already used : — 

1. Washington is the capital of the United States. 

2. Washington is in the District of Columbia. 

3. Washington is situated on the Potomac. 

4. Cotton is grown in the South. 



36 GRAMMAR 

5. The negroes are in the South. 

6. Much of our fruit comes from CaHfornia. 

7. Pasadena is in the fruit district of Cahfornia. 

8. Our biggest timber comes from Washington and 
Oregon. 

9. Vast forests of fir are in Washington. 

10. Today is here. 

11. Tomorrow will never be here. 

12. Here is darkness. 

13. Beyond the mountain is light. 

14. Here darkness overtook us. 

15. In the morning we shall come into the light. 

16. The criticism was given for our good. 

17. Criticism is for our good. 

18. Truth is w^ithin ourselves. 

SECTION 65. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition^ see page 211, 
Section 14.) 

SECTION 66. PBEPOSITIONS. 

The purpose of this lesson is to separate phrases 
into their elements, and to learn the use of a class of 
words not yet studied. 

(a) The dust was dimpled by the rain. 

(b) The flowers were refreshed by it. 

(c) The bloom was on the clover. 

(d) The blue was in the sky. 

(e) My naked feet found dewy pathways through the 
wheat. 

Write in a column the phrases used in these sentences. 
Underline the nouns and pronouns in these phrases. Does 
each phrase have either a noun or a pronoun for its prin- 
cipal word ? After each phrase write the little word with 
which it begins. Each of these little words shows the rela- 
tion of the noun or pronoun to the word which the phrase 
modifies. This is clearly seen by changing these little 
words in a sentence. Read the following sentence in the 



MODEL FOR WRITTEN ANALYSIS 37 

different ways indicated, and observe the difference in 
meaning. 

(to) 

(from) 
The knight sprang (upon) his horse. 

(before) 

These words that show relation are called prepo- 
sitions. 

A PREPOSITION IS A WORD THAT SHOWS THE RELATION BETWEEN 
TWO IDEAS WHICH ARE NAMED BY THE PRINCIPAL WORD OF THE 
PHRASE AND THE WORD THE PHRASE MODIFIES. 

Sometimes two or more words are combined to 
show relation, making a phrase-preposition. 

Example: from under the ruins; in accordance with 
the facts; as to the story; because of the cold. 

The principal word of a prepositional phrase is some- 
times called the object of the preposition. 

SECTION 67. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

Model. "A lion among ladies is a most dreadful 

thing" is a sentence, because . . . 

The complete subject is " A lion among ladies." 
The complete predicate is " is a most dreadful thing.'* 
The bare subject is " lion," modified by the adjective 

"A" and the adjective phrase, "among ladies." 
The bare predicate is " is thing," composed of the 

copula " is " and the attribute complement " thing." The 

predicate, therefore, is of the first type. 

The attribute complement is modified by the adjectives 

"a" and "dreadful." "Dreadful" is modified by the 

adverb "most." 

MODEL FOR W^RITTEN ANALYSIS. 

Complete Subject A lion among ladies 

Complete Predicate is a most dreadful thing 



38 GRAMMAR 

Bare Subject lion 

Modifiers of Subject A among ladies 

Bare Predicate is thing 

Copula is 

Attribute Complement thing 

Modifiers of 

Attribute Complement a dreadful 

Modifier of Modifier most 

1. Victory is born of endurance. 

2. Excess of wealth is a cause of covetousness. 

3. All roads lead to Rome. 

4. Life without industry is guilt. 

5. I'll speak in a monstrous little voice. 

6. Truth is truth 
To the end of reckoning. 

7. Light gains make heavy purses. 

8. This hitteth the nail on the head. 

9. The finest edge is made with a blunt whetstone. 

10. The world knows nothing of its greatest men. 

11. One on God's side is a majority. 

12. Over my head his arms he flung, 

Against the world. 

13. To every man upon this earth 
Death cometh soon or late. 

14. A nod from a lord is a breakfast for a fool. 

15. We are all children in the Kindergarten of God. 

16. The poplar drops beside the way 
Its tasseled plumes of silver-gray. 

17. The bumblebee tipped the lily-vases along the 
roadside. 

18. The honeysuckle spills its perfume on the breeze. 

19. Between the pasture bars the wondering cattle stared 
wistfully. 

20. The ripples of the river lipped the moss along the 
brink. 

21. Out of the shadows of night 
The world rolls into light. 

22. By their fruits ye shall know them. 



USES OF PHRASES 39 

SECTION 68. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 211, Sec- 
tion 15.) 

SECTION 69. USES OP PHBASES. 

(a) The holy spirit of the spring 
Is working silently. 

(b) The southern slopes are fringed with tender green. 

(c) Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees. 

(d) The bird is on her nest. 

(e) From her we may learn patience. 

(f) From her we may learn to be patient. 

(g) To be patient is to be strong, 
(h) Loitering makes a person tardy. 

(i) Loitering makes a person behind time. 

Point out the adjective phrase in (a); the adverbial 
phrases in (b) and (c); the phrase used as an attribute 
complement in (d). 

In (e), what is the object complement of learn? What 
phrase in (f ) has exactly the same use ? A phrase, then, 
may be used as an object complement. 

What is the subject of (g) ? This shows another use of 
the phrase. 

Show that the word tardy is the objective comple- 
ment in (h). What phrase has exactly the same use in 
(i) ? So a phrase may be used as an objective comple- 
ment. 

A phrase is often used as : — 

1. an adjective modifier; 

2. an adverbial modifier; 

3. an attribute complement; 

and rarely as : — 

4. a subject; 

5. an object complement; 

6. an objective complement. 



40 GRAMMAR 

SECTION 70. EXERCISE. 

In the following sentences, tell how each phrase 
is used. You will need to be very careful in the 
analysis. 

1. Over the fence is out. 

2. He is trying hard to understand grammar. 
2. My book fell under the table. 

4. My book is on the table. 

5. He began the study of Greek. 

6. He began to study Greek. 

7. Too little exercise kept him in bad condition. 

8. A fool at forty is a fool indeed. 

9. He learned to keep a few true men for his friends. 
10. Waters on a starry night are beautiful and fair. 

SECTION 71. THE rNDIRECT OBJECT. 

There are many ways of expressing a thought. 
In this lesson, the same thought is expressed in each 
pair of sentences ; but the form of the expression 
varies. Find just what is the difPerence in form. 

(a) Lincoln gave the slaves their liberty. 

(b) Lincoln gave liberty to the slaves. 

(c) Nokomis ta\ight the little Hiawatha many things. 

(d) Nokomis taught many things to the little Hiawatha. 

(e) The snow makes a beautiful white blanket for the 
plants. 

(f) The snow makes the plants a beautiful white 
blanket. 

In (a) and (b), what word names the receiver of the 
action gave ? In other words, what was given ? This word 
is the direct object complement. In both sentences, what 
word tells who received liberty, or to whom liberty was 
given? In (e) and (f), what completes the meaning of 
the transitive verb makes? Then it is the direct object 
complement. For what was the blanket made ? A noun or 



EXERCISE 41 

pronoun that tells to whom or for whom an action is done 
is called an indirect object. This name is given because 
the noun or pronoun is affected by the verb only indirectly 
through the direct object. 

Observe that the prepositions are used to show the 
relation of the indirect object to the verb. When not 
expressed, the preposition to or for is understood. When 
it is expressed, which is placed first, the indirect object 
or the direct object ? Which, when the preposition is 
omitted ? 

When the indirect object is joined to the verb by 
a preposition, the indirect object and the preposi- 
tion form an adverbial phrase. When there is no 
connective, the indirect object is still an adverbial 
modifier. 

If the indirect object follows the direct object, the 
preposition is usually expressed ; if it precedes the 
direct object, the preposition is usually omitted. 

The most common verbs that may be followed by 
an indirect object are : bring, build, cut, do, forgive, 
get, give, grant, hand, leave, make, offer, pay, pledge, 
promise, read, sell, send, show, teach, tell, throw, 
wish. 

AN INDIRECT OBJECT IS A WORD USED TO NAME THE PERSON TO 
OR FOR WHOM SOMETHING IS DONE. 

Indirect objects may name things as well as persons. 

SECTION 72. EXERCISE. 

Write ten sensible sentences with indirect objects, 
using ten of the verbs named in Section 71. 

SECTION 73. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. There is no 
need of a new model. An indirect object is a modi- 
fier of a verb, just the same as any other adverbial 
modifier. 



42 GRAMMAR 

1. Jefferson offered Gallatin a position in his cabinet. 

2. The Indians sold the white people acres of land. 

3. Charles II granted his " trusty and well-beloved 
cousins" a vast extent of territorv in the New 
World. 

4. The clock upbraids me with the waste of time. 

5. Experience has taught us many serious lessons. 

6. Marquette told the listening crowds the story of 
salvation. 

7. The way to his land of promise was rough and long. 

8. A decent provision for the poor is the true test of 
civilization. 

9. To relieve distress is godlike. 

10. Now only here and there a little star 

Looks forth alone. 

11. Winter giveth the fields and trees of old 
Their beards and icicles of snow. 

SECTION 74. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 212, 
Section 16.) 

SECTION 75. NOUNS USED ADVERBIALLY. 

(a) The coat cost much. 

(b) The coat cost three dollars. 

(c) The war lasted long. 

(d) The war lasted four years. 

(e) Some mountains are very high. 

(f) Some mountains are four miles high. 

(g) A kind word is worth much. 
(h) The reward is worth the effort. 

(i) Cornwallis surrendered then. 

(j) Cornwallis surrendered October nineteenth. 

(k) The snow was gone long ago. 
(1) The snow was gone days ago. \ 

(m) Feeling was high years before the war. 
(n) The little birds fly east and the little birds fly west. 



EXERCISE 43 

What adverb in (a) modifies the verb cost? It gives a 
measure of value. In (b), the same verb is modified by 
words denoting a definite measure of value. Since this 
expression modifies the meaning of the verb, it is an 
adverbial modifier. In (c), what adverb modifies the verb 
lasted? It is a measure of time. In (d), the measure of 
time is named. Then the expressions three dollars and 
four years are both adverbial modifiers, though both 
dollars and years are nouns in their ordinary use. 

What adverb in (e) modifies the adjective high? In (f), 
what words modify high by naming the measure of dis- 
tance ? By what is the measure of value expressed in (h) ? 
Does tliis expression modify the adjective worth? Then 
what kind of modifier is it ? In (j), there is a noun used 
adverbially to designate a point of time. What is it ? 
What noun in (1) has an adverbial use ? What nouns in 
(n) are used adverbially to designate a direction ? What 
noun in (m) is used adverbially to denote a measure of 
time modifying the meaning of the adverbial phrase ? 

Name the nouns in (b), (d), (f), (h), (j), (1), (m), and 
(n) used as adverbial modifiers. Which are used to modify 
the meaning of verbs ? of adjectives ? of adverbs ? of a 
phrase ? All but two express some kind of measure. 

The commonest adverbial uses of a noun are to 
designate measure, point of time, and direction. 

Adverbs may modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs, 
or phrases. Nouns used adverbially may do the 
same. 

SECTION 76. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the sentences according to the model. 

Model. " One warm morn, Winter crept, aged, from 
the earth" is a sentence. 
Complete Subject Winter aged 

Complete Predicate crept One warm morn 

from the earth 
Bare Subject Winter 

Modifier of Subject aged 



44 GRAMMAR 

Bare Predicate crept 

Modifiers of One warm morn 

Copula-Attribute from the earth 

1. A pint of water weighs a pound. 

2. My father is out of the city. 

3. My father is away. 

4. The moon is far away. 

5. The sun is 92,000,000 miles away. 

6. A hundred years make a century. 

7. Years ago the Mississippi Valley was the abode of 
Indians. 

8. They marched half a league onward. 

9. Morning, noon, and night, her tongue was forever 
going. 

10. Your privileges have cost labor and sacrifice. 

11. The view from the mountain-top is worth the weary 
chmb. 

12. The situation was not without its embarrassments. 
My rod weighed four and a half ounces. The fish 
weighed five or six pounds. The current was furi- 
ous and headstrong. I had only thirty yards of line 
and no landing-net. 

13. One today is worth two tomorrows. 

14. No morning sun lasts a whole day. 

SECTION 77. NOUNS USED ADJECTIVELY : APPOSITIVES 
AND POSSESSIVES. 

You have studied the uses of nouns as subject, 
attribute complement, object complement, objective 
complement, and adverbial modifiers. Give exam- 
ples of each in sentences. Two other uses of nouns 
are shown in the following sentences : — 

(a) Nero, a Roman emperor, murdered Christians for 
his pleasure. 

(b) I, John, saw these things. 

(c) William Henry Harrison defeated Tecumseh, a 
Shawnee chief. 

(d) Slavery received its hardest blow from William 
Lloyd Garrison, a poor printer. 



APPOSITIVES AND POSSESSIVES 45 

(e) The chief's eye flashed. 

(f) A man's reach should exceed his grasp. 

(g) A serpent's bite is poisonous. 

(h) Some men seem to have a lion's strength, 
(i) One winter's evening a man was urging a tired 
horse along a lonely road. 

What word in (a) modifies Nero by telling who he was ? 
It is an adjective modifier. Why ? What word in (b) 
modifies the pronoun I by identifying, or naming ? It is 
also an adjective modifier. Why ? What noun in (c) tells 
in what class to place Tecumseh ? Show that the noun 
printer in (d) has the same use. In all four sentences you 
have pointed out nouns used as adjective modifiers. There 
is no word to connect these nouns with the words they 
modify. A noun, then, may modify another noun directly, 
both of them naming the same object. A noun having this 
adjective use is called an appositive. 

AN APPOSITIVE IS A NOUN USED TO MODIFY THE MEANING OF A 
NOUN OR PRONOUN BY NAMING THE SAME OBJECT.^ 

What noun in (e) names the possessor or owner of eye ? 
What noun in (f ) modifies the meaning of the noun reach 
denoting possession ? In the same sentence, a pronoun is 
used to denote possession. What noun does this pronoun 
limit in meaning ? These words denoting possession are 
possessive modifiers. They are nouns and pronouns used 
adjectively to modify other nouns and pronouns. In 
writing such noun modifiers, what mark is used as the 
sign of the possessive ? 

Not all nouns with the sign of the possessive, the apos- 
trophe, denote possession. In (c), the serpent cannot be 
said to own or possess the bite. " Serpent's " is a modifier 
denoting the agent of an action. In (d), "lion's " does not 
mean that the man possesses the actual strength belonging 
to the lion. It is a modifier used to describe "strength." 
And in (e), "winter's" does not denote possession; it is 
descriptive. Yet because most words with the sign of the 

1 For punctuation of appositives see pag-e 259, V, 3. 



46 GRAMMAR 

possessive actually do denote possession, we term them all 
possessives. 

Nouns, then, have two adjective uses : as apposi- 
tives, and as possessives. 

A noun used as an appositive or a possessive may 
be modified by adjectives, the same as other nouns. 
Find ex^amples. 

SECTION 78. EXERCISE. 

Write five sentences each containing an apposi- 
tive. In three of the sentences, use adjectives to 
modify the meaning of the appositives. 

Write five sentences each containing a possessive 
modifier ; and in three of these sentences use ad- 
jectives to modify the meaning of the possessive. 

SECTION 79. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 214, 
Section 17.) 

SECTION 80. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the sentences according to the model. 

Model. "William Henry Harrison defeated Tecum- 
seh, a Shawnee chief," is a sentence. 

The complete subject is "William Henry Harrison." 

The complete predicate is "defeated Tecumseh, a 
Shawnee chief." 

The bare subject is "William Henry Harrison," un- 
modified. 

The bare predicate is "defeated Tecumseh," com- 
posed of the copula-attribute "defeated" and the object 
complement "Tecumseh." The predicate is, therefore, 
of the third type. " Tecumseh ". is modified by the apposi- 
tive "chief." "Chief" is modified by the adjectives "a" 
and "Shawnee." 



EXERCISE 47 

1. Hildebrand, the son of a poor carpenter, became 
pope in the eleventh century. 

2. Amerigo Vespucci, an ItaHan sailor, made the first 
chart of the coast of America. 

3. The Gauls were subdued by Caesar, dictator of 
Rome. 

4. No man knows his own voice. 

5. Out of this nettle, danger, we pluck the flower, 
safety. 

6. The army moved forward after a month's delay. 

7. Gladness on wings, the bobolink, is here. 

8. My oriole, my glance of summer fire, is come at 
last. 

9. Stanch friends are we. 
One little sandpiper and I. 

10. He wandered away and away 
With Nature, the dear old Nurse. 

11. Noontide wakes the buttercups, 
The little children's dower. 

12. Still sits the school-house by the road, 
A ragged beggar sunning. 

13. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of 

heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of 
the angels. 

SECTION 81. EXERCISE. 

In the following sentences, the same word occurs 
a number of times ; but its use in the several sen- 
tences is not the same. Study the meaning of each 
sentence, and be sure to give the words their proper 
place in the analysis. Analyze the sentences accord- 
ing to models already given. Classify the words 
as nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and 
prepositions. Alw^ays give the reason for your 
classification. 

1. The dog ran fast. 

2. The fast horses were tied fast to the fence. 



48 GRAMMAR 

3. The Jews observed the fast. 

4. Many persons fast during Lent. 

5. He came in. 

6. We sat in the reading-room of the inn. 

7. He looked at himself in the mirror. 

8. He had the look of a gentleman. 

9. I fell down. I stayed down. 

10. I rolled down the hill. 

11. The robin picked down from her breast. 

12. A down pillow is soft. 

13. The only real possession of man is his character. 

14. I whispered only once. 

15. I only whispered once. 

16. Only he went. 

17. The door is wide open. 

18. The door is open wide. 

19. The door stood wide open. 

20. The open door is the American policy in China. 

21. They open the gate. 

22. I hear the low murmur of the breeze. 

23. I feel the breeze. 

24. I feel cool. 

25. The breeze is murmuring soft and low. 

26. The house is painted red. 

27. They painted the house red. 

28. The poker is red-hot. 

29. The hot poker is red. 

30. Red is my favorite color. 

SECTION 82. OKDER OF ^WORDS IN A SENTENCE. 

Which usually comes first in a sentence, — the subject 
or the predicate ? Prove your answer by your reading- 
lesson. Do complements usually follow or precede the 
verbs ? Give examples. Do the word -modifiers of a noun 
generally precede or follow the word modified ? Is this 
true of the phrase-modifiers ? Find examples to show that 
your answers are correct. Write the answers to the ques- 
tions in this paragraph in complete sentences. 

Show in what respect each of the following sentences 



EXERCISE 49 

varies from the usual order. Re-write each sentence, chang- 
ing the order to the usual form. Observe the difference in 
the impression left in your mind. 

(a) In union is strength. 

(b) Ideals we do not make. We discover them. 

(c) Slowly and quietly the great gray clouds creep up 
over the night sky. 

(d) Silent and soft and slow 
Descends the snow. 

(e) All around the happy village 

Stood the maize-fields green and shining. 

Is it not true in each case that the words placed first 
attract attention and so are emphatic .^ 

If all sentences should be arranged in the same 
order, composition would become monotonous. To 
introduce variety into composition, and to render a 
special word emphatic, writers change from the usual 
order. A verb, adjective, adverb, complement, or 
modifier placed first in a sentence receives special 
emphasis. Any part of a sentence may be put out 
of its natural order to give the composition variety, 
and especially to give emphasis to the transposed 
part. 

SECTION 83. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 215, 
Section 18.) 

SECTION 84. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the five sentences in Section 82 and the 
sentences below. There is no new element in them. 
Be very careful to know what each sentence means 
before you begin with the analysis. 

1. From the dull ground, the violet gathers up her 
tender blue. 

2. A prisoner Robert remained for twenty-eight years. 



60 GRAMMAR 

3. A mighty man is he, 

With large and sinewy hands. 

4. A rare old plant is the ivy green. 

5. With his hard, rough hand,' 
He wipes a tear out of his eyes. 

6. A primrose by the river's brim 
A yellow primrose was to him. 

7. Three years she grew in sun and shower. 

8. Sweet is the breath of morn. 

9. In a small chamber, friendless and unseen, 
Toiled o'er his types one poor unlearned young 

man. 

10. Him have I offended. 

11. Shorter and shorter now the twilight clips the days. 

12. Old homesteads I love, in their clusters of trees. 

SECTION 85. USE OF "THERE" AND "IT." 

The following sentences show a common way of 
varying the usual order of words in a sentence : — 

(a) A window-box of beautiful geraniums is here by 
me. 

(b) There is a bank of beautiful geraniums here by me. 

(c) No day is without its innocent hope. 

(d) There is no day without its innocent hope. 

(e) Something forever comes between us and happiness. 

(f) There comes forever something between us and 
happiness. 

(g) Men of honor and courage are still in the world. 
(h) There are still men of honor and courage in the 

world. 

What word is used to introduce the sentence in (b), (d), 
(f), and (h), when the usual order is changed ? Though 
this word is sometimes used as an adverb of place, thought- 
ful study of the meaning will show that it is not so used in 
the sentences given. For example, in the first sentence, 
here certainly denotes an attribute of place; and both 



USE OF "THERE" AND "IT" 61 

here and there could not be used in the same sentence to 
denote the same place. In this, as in the other sentences 
given above, " there " is simply an introductory word. 

What three elements are necessary in every sentence ? 
What is the subject of (h) ? What does are mean in (h) ? 
Is this verb a copula or a copula-attribute ? Is it a copu- 
lative or an attributive verb ? Whenever " is " means 
" exists/* it forms the copula-attribute of the sentence. 

Show that the two sentences in each pair have the 
same subjects and the same predicates. Tell just what 
changes have been made in the natural order when the 
introductory word there is used. Give other examples. 

Another form of expression is shown in the sen- 
tences below : — 

(a) To have friends at court is good. 

(b) It is good to have friends at court. 

(c) To catch a thief needs a thief. 

(d) It needs a thief to catch a thief. 

(e) That every man's work is born into this world 
with him is true. 

(f) It is true that every man's work is born into this 
world with him. 

What is the complete subject of (a) ? (c) ? (e) ? 

When the real subject of a sentence is a group of words 
denoting a single idea, it seldom stands at the beginning 
of a sentence. The predicate often comes before the real 
subject, with the pronoun " it " used as another subject in 
apposition with the real subject. For example, in (b), It 
and the phrase to have friends at court mean the same; 
they name or represent the same object; they are in 
apposition. 

Can you think why the word " it " in such sentences is 
called an anticipatory subject ? The group of words which 
it anticipates is called the real subject. What is the real 
subject of (b) ? (d) ? (f) ? 



52 GRAMMAR 

SECTION 86. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. Do not try to 
separate the real subject into its parts. The predi- 
cate of each sentence is easy to analyze. 

Model. " It is honorable to work with the hands " is a 
sentence, because . . . 

The complete subject is " It " '' to work with the 
hands." 

The complete predicate is " is honorable," composed 
of a copula and an attribute complement. The predicate 
is, therefore, of the first type. 

" It " is the anticipatory subject, in apposition with the 
real subject, "to work with the hands." 

1. It is a grand thing to make something beautiful. 

2. There is no food for the soul but truth, 

3. It was morning on hill and stream and tree. 

4. There's a star in the sky. 

5. It is a great thing to be beloved by one's country. 

6. There is no doubt on that score. 

7. There was little conversation. 

8. There was a little chapel cut in the very heart of the 
mountains. 

9. It takes a long time to bring excellence to matur- 
ity. 

SECTION 87. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition^ see page 216^ 
Section 19.) 

SECTION 88. CLASSES OP SENTENCES. 

(a) Art is long. 

(b) Time is fleeting. 

(c) Rome was not built in a day. 

(d) Are we so soon forgot ? 

(e) How soon are we forgot ? 

(f ) Who loves not power ? 

(g) What find I here ? 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES 53 

(h) Act well your part. 
(i) Be charitable with others. 
(j) Be strict with thyself. 

Which of the above sentences are used to declare that 
sometliing is, or is not, true ? Which are used to ask 
questions ? Which are used to give commands ? 

Sentences are classified according to their use, as 
declarative, interrogative, or imperative. 

The grammatical use of the interrogative word in a 
sentence may be made clear by substituting the word 
which answers the question. 

Examples. Who) 

(loves not power? 
John) 

What) 

(have they named him ? 
James) 

Who ) 

(is he ? 
The King) 

In the interrogative sentence, '' Who is he ? " " Who " 
is not, as it might seem to be, the subject. For if we sub- 
stitute the word which answers the question, the sentence 
reads, " The King is he " ; or, as we usually say, " He is the 
King." "King" is the attribute; and so "Who" is an 
attribute complement in the question, " Who is he ? " 

Since we give commands to the person spoken to, 
there is no need of always saying " you." So the 
subject of an imperative sentence is omitted. In 
analysis it should be supplied. 

A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE IS ONE THAT ASSERTS A PACT. 

AN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE IS ONE USED IN ASKING A QUES- 
TION. 

AN IMPERATIVE SENTENCE IS ONE USED IN EXPRESSING A COM- 
MAND OR AN ENTREATY. ^ 

^ For punctuation of different kinds of sentences, see pa£:e 259, II, III. 
andlV. PS ,. , 



54 GRAMMAR 

SECTION 89. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. Before analysis 
always think the sentences re-arranged in the usual 
declarative order. 

Model. *' What find I here ? " is an interrogative sen- 
tence. 

The complete subject is " I." 

The complete predicate is '*find What here." 

The bare subject is "I" unmodified. 

The bare predicate is "find What," composed of the 
copula-attribute "find" and the object complement 
"What." 

The predicate is, therefore, of the third type. 

The copula-attribute is modified by the adverb " here." 

1. When did Cornwallis surrender? 

2. Who is the greatest Hving poet ? 

3. How^ much have you paid for your whistle ? 

4. Where is Paris ? 

5. Who hath not lost a friend ? 

6. Whither wilt thou flee from thyself? 

7. Did the waves obey King Canute ? 

8. Where is the most rugged American scenery? 

9. What shall I render to my God 
For all his gifts to me ? 

10. Where shall wisdom be found ? 

11. Where is the place of understanding? 

12. Whence, then, cometh wisdom ? 

13. Who has read "The Vision of Sir Launfal" ? 

14. What is the largest city in the world ? 

15. What study do you like best ? 

SECTION 90. ABSOLUTE WORDS — INTERJECTIONS. 

(a) Man, know thyself! 

(b) How beautiful is night! 

(c) Oh, pilot, 't is a fearful night ! 

(d) Oh, never chide the wing of time! 

Which of the three classes of sentences is (a) ? (b) ? 



» EXERCISE 55 

(c) ? (d) ? In what way do all four sentences differ from 
ordinary sentences ? Is the subject of an imperative 
sentence expressed ? Is man in (a) the subject ? Do we say 
" man know " or " man knows " ? What is the subject of 
(c) ? Of what use is pilot ? Are the words Man, pilot, Oh, 
elements of the sentences ? Are they modifiers ? 

Under stress o£ great emotion any sentence may 
become an exclamation. This does not change the 
class of sentence. It is the exclamatory Exclamatory 
form of a declarative, interrogative, or sentences. 
imperative sentence. 

A sentence may contain words that grammatically 
have no connection with it ; yet these words add to 
the meaning of the sentence. These words are said to 
be independent or absolute- "Absolute" means 
"cut loose from"; and these words are grammat- 
ically cut loose from the rest of the sentence, though 
in thought they have a close connection. Such words 
are used independently or absolutely. 

The name of the person addressed is used abso- 
lutely ; as " man " in (a).^ 

Absolute words that are used to express strong 
feeling are called Interjections. Oh, alas, ah, pshaw, 
are common examples. 

AN INTERJECTION IS A WORD USED TO EXPRESS SUDDEN, STRONG 

PEELING.2 

SECTION 91. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

Model. " Oh, pilot, 'tis a fearful night!" is a declar- 
ative sentence in the exclamatory form. " 'T " is the 
complete subject; "is a fearful night" is the complete 
predicate. 

'*'T"isthe bare subject, unmodified. 

^ For punctuation see page 259, V, 2. 
^ For punctuation, see page 2.59, TV. 



56 GRAMMAR 

"Is night" is the bare predicate, composed of the 
copula *' is " and the attribute complement " night." The 
predicate is, therefore, of the first type. 

"Night" is modified by the adjectives "a" and "fear- 
ful." 

" Oh " and " pilot " are used absolutely in the sentence. 

1. Woodman, spare that tree! 

2. Charge for the guns! 

3. Lead, kindly Light! 

4. Daughter of Egypt, veil thine eyes! 

5. Sleep, sleep, sleep. 

In thy folded waves, O sea! 

6. There's a song in the air! 
There 's a star in the sky ! 

7. My golden spurs now bring to me. 

8. Rock me to sleep, mother, — rock me to sleep ! 

9. Weep no more, my lady! 
Weep no more today! 

10. Adieu! adieu! my native shore 
Fades o'er the waters blue. 

11. Oh, velvet Bee, you're a dusty fellow! 

12. Wind, you sing so loud a song! 

13. By cool Siloam's shady rill 
How fair the lily grows! 

14. Hark! the merry Christmas bells! 
Hear them echo through the years! 

15. Hurrah! the seaward breezes 
Sweep down the bay amain! 

SECTION 92. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 216, Sec- 
tion 20.) 

SECTION 93. SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

(a) Man is guided by reason. 

(b) Beasts are guided by instinct. 

(c) Man is guided by reason, and beasts are guided by 
instinct. 

(d) Man is guided by reason, and beasts by instinct. 



EXERCISE 57 

How many statements in (a) ? in (b) ? in (c) ? How 
has (c) been made ? Does (d) mean the same as (c) ? 
What words have been omitted in (d) ? Is the meaning 
perfectly* clear without them ? Do the omitted words 
contain necessary elements of the sentence? Must the 
omitted words be supplied in analysis ? In (c) and (d), 
what word is used to join the statements ? 

A sentence that contains but one statement, or proposi- 
tion, is a simple sentence. 

A sentence that contains two or more independent 
statements, or propositions, is a compound sentence.^ 

The omission of any word or words necessary to the 
grammatical structure of a sentence is called ellipsis. (The 
omitted words must be supplied in the analysis of the 
sentence.) 

The word joining the independent statements of a com- 
pound sentence is called a conjunction. 

SECTION 94. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

Model. "Man is guided by reason, and beasts by 
instinct" is a compound, declarative sentence; com- 
pound, because . . . ; and declarative, because . . . 

The first independent statement is " Man is guided by 
reason," and the second is "beasts (are guided) by 
instinct." 

Go on with the analysis exactly as if the statements 
were simple sentences. 

The independent statements are connected by the con- 
junction " and." 

1. Virtue is bold, and goodness is never fearful. 

2. Wealthy planters settled in Virginia, but the settlers 
in Massachusetts were generally poor. 

3. Minnesota produces the most iron, and Pennsylvania 
the most coal. 

4. A false balance is an abomination to the Lord; but 
a just weight is his delight. 

For punctuation, see pages 259, and 200, V, 8, and VI, 1. 



58 GRAMMAR 

5. Hatred stirreth up strifes; but love covereth all 
transgressions. 

6. A cruel story runs on wheels, and every hand oils 
the wheels. 

7. By slothfulness the roof sinketh in; 

And through idleness of the hands the house leak- 
eth. 

8. The soft drops of rain pierce the hard marble; 
many strokes overthrow the tallest oaks. 

9. The morn was fair, the skies were clear. 
No breath came o'er the sea. 

10. My country is the world; my countrymen are all 
mankind. 

SECTION 95. COMPOUND ELEMENTS OP A SENTENCE. 

(a) A crow and a blue jay belong to the same family 
of birds. 

(b) Wolfe defeated the French and Indians under 
Montcalm. 

(c) Pope Leo XIII was wise and kind. 

(d) The angels come and go, the messengers of God. 

(e) Neither ancestry nor riches makes a man esteemed 
or loved. 

What is the subject of (a) ? Does it name one idea ? 
What is the object in (b) ? the attribute complement in 
(c) ? the copula-attribute in (d) ? the subject in (e) ? the 
objective complement in (e) ? 

Any of the elements of a sentence, — subject, 
copula, attribute, object, — or any modifier, may be 
compound. 

The word that connects the parts of any com- 
pound element is a conjunction. 

When more than two words are joined to make 
a compound element of a sentence, the conjunction 
is usually omitted except before the last one. 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES 59 

SECTION 96. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. "The angels come and go, the messengers 
of God" is a simple, declarative sentence. There is 
nothing new in this analysis except to state that the bare 
predicate is the compound copula-attribute " come and 
go." The predicate is, therefore, of the second type. 

1. Tar, turpentine, and resin are mainly supplied by 
the pine forests of the South. 

2. Raw silk is reeled and sent to the market in skeins. 

3. The United States buys from Australia wool, gums, 
hides, and copper, and sells to Australia petroleum, 
railway cars, tobacco, hardware, and leather goods. 

4. Railroads are numerous and rates are cheap in 
Germany. 

5. All European and many American manufacturers 
buy large quantities of raw silk in Italy. 

6. Venezuela exports quantities of rubber and coffee. 

7. Belgium makes all its own sugar, and exports much. 

8. The Dutch are a cattle-raising and trading nation. 

9. The northeast portion of France produces coal and 
iron. 

10. The Saskatchewan and the Mackenzie afford 4000 
miles of navigable waterways in the far interior of 
Canada. 

SECTION 97. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 218, 
Section 21.) 

SECTION 98. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

(a) Brave Joan, on a white horse, defeated the 
English. 

(b) Brave Joan, who rode a white horse, defeated the 
English. 

(c) She who rode the white horse was Joan of Arc. 

(d) The white horse which she rode was a mark for 
English arrows. 



60 GRAMMAK 

(e) The white horse that she rode was a mark for 
EngHsh arrows. 

(f) Joan, in whom the army trusted, led the French to 
victory at Orleans. 

(g) Joan, whose horse was a mark for English arrows, 
was wounded. 

(h) The horse on which she rode was white. 
(i) The horse which she rode on was white. 
(j) The horse that she rode on was white. 
(k) They killed the horse which Joan rode. 
(1) Joan was a brave leader who inspired courage. 
(m) The English soldiers railed at Joan, who answered 
them with silence. 

What are the modifiers of Joan in (a) ? Since they 
modify a noun, what kind of modifiers are they ? What 
besides brave modifies Joan in (b) ? Since it modifies 
a noun, it is what kind of modifier ? Has this modifier a 
subject and a predicate ? What are they ? 

It has been shown in previous lessons that a noun 
may be modified by a word or a phrase. A noun 
may also be modified by a group of words contain- 
ing a subject and a predicate. 

A part of a sentence containing a subject and a predicate 
and having the use of an adjective, is a clause. 

In (c), what does the clause, who rode the white horse, 
modify ? In what sentences do the clauses modify the 
subject ? Is there a sentence in which the clause is a modi- 
fier of the attribute complement ? in which the clause 
modifies an object complement ? the principal word of 
a prepositional phrase ? 

If the word to which a pronoun refers be substituted for 
the pronoun, the use of the pronoun will always be clear. 
Doing this in (d), you will make the clause read, " a white 
horse Joan rode." " A white horse " is the object comple- 
ment; so which, which represents " a white horse," is also 
the object complement. What is the use of whom in (f) ? 
of whose in (g) ? of which in (h) ? of who in (1) ? 



EXERCISE 61 

In a prepositional phrase, does the preposition usually 
precede the principal word of the phrase ? Which is first 
in (f) ? in (h) ? AVhich stands first in (i) ? in (j) ? Can 
you think of a sentence in which a noun used as the prin- 
cipal word of a phrase stands before the preposition ? 

SECTION 99. EXERCISE. 

Find sentences in your histories in which clauses 
modify nouns that are subjects, attribute comple- 
ments, object complements. Make up a sentence in 
which a clause is a modifier of a pronoun. 

SECTION 100. CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

In sentence (b), Section 98, what object is represented 
by who ? A word that represents an object, but does not 
name it, is what ? Who also joins the clause who rode a 
white horse to the word it modifies, and so has the use of a 
conjunction. Find in Section 98 other words that combine 
the uses of a pronoun and a conjunction. 

A word that has the uses of a pronoun and a con- 
junction is called a conjunctive pronoun. 

A C0NJUNCTr7E PRONOUN IS ONE THAT JOINS A DEPENDENT CLAUSE 
TO THE WORD IT MODIFIES. 

A sentence containing an adjective clause is com- 
plex. 

SECTION 101. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the sentences according to the model. 

Model. "Today is the day that yesterday built" is a 
complex, declarative sentence; complex, because . . • ; 
declarative, because . . . The complete subject is 
"Today"; the complete predicate is "is the day that 
yesterday built." "Today" is the bare subject unmodi- 
fied. "Is day" is the bare predicate, composed of the 
copula "is" and the attribute complement "day." The 
predicate is, therefore, of the first type. The copula is 
unmodified; and the attribute complement is modified 
by the adjective "the" and the adjective clause "that 



62 GRAMMAR 

yesterday built." Of this clause, ''yesterday" is the 
unmodified bare subject. " Built " is the copula-attribute; 
and "that" is the object complement. "That" also 
connects the clause to the word "day." 

MODEL FOR WRITTEN ANALYSIS 

Complete Subject Today 

Complete Predicate is the day that yesterday built 

Bare Subject Today 

Bare Predicate is day 

Copula is 

Attribute Complement day 

Modifiers of 

Attribute Complement the that yesterday built 
Subject of Clause yesterday 

Bare Predicate built that 

Copula-Attribute built 

Object Complement that 

1. Friendship is a plant that loves the sun. 

2. He that complies against his will 
Is of the same opinion still. 

3. The flower that smiles today 
Tomorrow dies. 

4. All that glitters is not gold. 

5. Tomorrow is a lamp upon the marsh, which a 
traveler never reacheth. 

6. They love dress too much who give it their first 
thought, their best time, or much money. 

7. They always talk who never think. 

8. The tear down childhood's cheek that flows 
Is like the dewdrop on the rose. 

9. The snow had begun in the gloaming, 

And busily all the night 
Had been heaping field and highway 
With a silence deep and white. 

Every pine and fir and hemlock 

Wore ermine too dear for an earl. 
And the poorest twig on the elm-tree 

Was ridged inch-deep with pearl. 



EXERCISE 63 

SECTION 102. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 218, 
Section 22.) 

SECTION 103. ET.T.TPSIS IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

(a) I knew the sweet strain that the corn-reapers sung. 

(b) The song which he Hstened to was a song of his 
childhood. 

(c) The pain that it had cost was forgotten in joy. 

In (a), what is the use of the conjunctive pronoun ? 
Read the sentence omitting that. Is the meaning clear ? 
What is the omission of words necessary to the grammat- 
ical structure of a sentence called ? What is the use of 
which in (b) ? Can it be omitted ? Can that in (c) be 
omitted ? 

An ellipsis of a conjunctive pronoun is very com- 
mon when it is used as an object complement, as the 
principal word of a prepositional phrase, or as an 
adverbial modifier. It rarely occurs when the con- 
junctive pronoun is subject or attribute complement. 
It must be supplied in analysis. 

SECTION 104. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. Whenever 
there is an ellipsis, supply the missing word in the 
analysis. 

1. I saw the man that you spoke to. 

2. I saw the man you spoke to. 

3. Where are the toys we loved in childhood ? 

4. The prize we sought is won. 

5. Stone walls do not a prison make, 
Nor iron bars a cage. 

6. The best thing I know between France and Eng- 
land is the sea. 

7. Lord Stafford mines for coal and salt, 
The Duke of Norfolk deals in malt. 
The Douglas in red herrings. 



64 GRAMMAR 

8. There's a blush on the apple, 

A tint on the wing, 
And the bright wind whistles, 
And the pulses sting. 

9. Come, stack arms; pile on the rails; 
Stir up the camp-fire bright. 

10. My golden spurs now bring to me, 
And bring to me my richest mail. 

SECTION 105. EXIIRCISE. 

Construct or find sentences, — three of which shall 
contain a conjunctive pronoun used as subject, three 
a conjunctive pronoun used as object complement, 
two a conjunctive pronoun used as the principal 
word of a prepositional phrase, and two in which 
the conjunctive pronoun is omitted. 

Sl^CTION 106. EXERCISE. 

Arrange the words of the first six sentences in 
columns as shown in the model. Analyze the sen- 
tences of the paragraphs. 





MODEL. 




NOUNS. PRONOUNS. 


ADJ. VERBS. 


ADV. 


God They 


serve 


well 


creatures who 


serve 




his 







CONJ. 



1. They serve God well who serve his creatures. 

2. The rising blushes which the cheek o'erspread 
Are opening roses in a lily's bed. 

3. Flowers are the sweetest things that God ever made. 

4. Wealth is the least gift that God has bestowed on 
mankind. 

5. The river welcomes me like an old friend. The tune 
that it sings is the same that flowing water repeats 
aU around the world. 

6. A touch of surprise is essential to perfect happiness. 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES — CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS 65 

7. The firing on Fort Sumter aroused the North to the 
highest pitch of excitement. Among the great mass of 
citizens there were no longer discussions of constitutional 
or legal rights. The flag of the nation had been fired upon, 
and that was enough. The President called for volun- 
teers, and the people answered with promptness. Wash- 
ington was in peril, and the troops hastened to its defense. 

The first blood of the war was shed in Baltimore; a mob 
resisted the passage of the Northern regiments. That city 
was forcibly occupied. Washington was garrisoned and 
fortified. It remained a walled town four years. 

SECTION 107. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 219, 
Section 23.) 

SECTION 108. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES WITH CON- 
JUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

(a) Knowledge is the wing wherewith we fly to heaven. 

(b) One never forgets the home where he lived during 
childhood. 

(c) Near the spot where Tell leaped ashore now stands 
a chapel. 

(d) That was a glorious moment when Aurora drew 
back the curtain of the night. 

In the clause in (a), substitute " with which " for where- 
with. What does "with which" modify? What kind of 
modifier is this phrase ? Does the word wherewith modify 
the same word as the phrase ? Ask yourselves similar 
questions about where and when in sentences (b), (c), 
and (d). 

What word does the clause in (a) modify ? What kind 
of modifier is the clause ? What word connects the clause 
to the word it modifies ? What word serves as a connect- 
ive in (b) ? in (c) ? in (d) ? 

In these sentences there are words which modify 
the verbs in the clanses, and at the same time con- 



66 GRAMMAR 

nect the clauses to the words the clauses modify. As 
Conjunctive modifiers, they are adverbs; and as con- 
Adverbs. nectives they are conjunctions. They are 
called conjunctive adverbs. 

A CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB IS AN ADVERB THAT CONNECTS THE CLAUSE 
IN WHICH IT IS A MODIFIER TO THE WORD WHOSE MEANING THE 
CLAUSE MODIFIES. 

SECTION 109. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " I know a bank where the wild thyme blows " 
is a complex, declarative sentence. " I " is the bare subject 
unmodified ; " know a bank where the wild thyme blows " 
is the complete predicate. "Know bank" is the bare 
predicate, composed of the copula-attribute "know" and 
the object complement " bank." The predicate is, there- 
fore, of the third type. The copula-attribute is unmodi- 
fied. "Bank" is modified by the adjective 'a" and the 
adjective clause "where the wild thyme blows." Of the 
clause, "the wild thyme" is the complete subject; and 
" blows " is the unmodified predicate. The bare subject is 
modified by the adjectives "the" and ''wild." "Where" 
connects the clause to the word it modifies, and is a modi- 
fier of the copula-attribute "blows." 

1. There is a National Cemetery on the ground where 
the battle of Gettysburg was fought. 

2. At a time when no white settlers dwelt beyond the 
Alleghanies, Boone entered Kentucky. 

3. He does not know the name of the city whence he 
came. 

4. I remember the day when I had my first pair of 
boots. 

5. In the tropics, where the heat is intense, little meat 
is eaten. 

6. I remember, I remember, 
The house where I was born. 

7. For a cap and bells our lives we pay. 
Bubbles we buy with a whole soul's tasking. 



ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 67 

8. Cannon to right of them, 
Cannon to left of them, 
Cannon in front of them 
Volley'd and thundered. 

9. Now has the hngering month at last gone by. 

10. A brazen altar stood beneath their feet, 
Whereon a thin flame flickered in the wind. 

11. Every night I go abroad 
Afar into the land of Nod. 

12. He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never 

call retreat; 
He is sifting out the hearts of men before his judg- 
ment seat. 

13. Of all the boys that were schoolmates then 
There are only you and I. 

14. The meanest floweret of the vale, 
The simplest note that swells the gale. 
The common sun, the air, the skies. 
To him were opening Paradise. 

SECTION 110. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 

In Section 108, conjunctive adverbs were used to 
introduce adjective clauses. Conjunctive adverbs 
have another and more common use. 

(a) When I was sick and lay abed, 
I had two pillows at my head. 

(b) A guest is unwelcome when he stays too long. 

(c) Count the cost before you go to Rome. 

(d) After the tempest has passed, the calm will come. 

(e) Strike while the iron is hot. 

(f) Where the leader of a flock goes, the sheep follow. 

(g) Where Mary went, the lamb went too. 

Show that in each of the sentences there is an adverb- 
ial modifier which contains a subject and a predicate. 

A part of a sentence containing a subject and 
a predicate and having the use of an adverb is a 
clause. 



68 GRAMMAR 

A sentence containing an adverbial clause is com- 
ple:s. 

SECTION 111. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 220, Sec- 
tion 24.) 

SECTION 112. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences, following the 
models already given : — 

1. All will be gay, when noontide wakes anew 
The buttercups. 

2. Care keeps his watch in every old man's eye; 
And where care lodges, sleep will never lie. 

3. When stars pursue their solemn flight, 
Oft in the middle of the night, 

A strain of music visits me. 

4. Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 
Where wealth accumulates and men decay. 

5. Noiseless falls the foot of time 
That only treads on flowers. 

6. The west is broken into bars 
Of orange, gold, and gray; 

Gone is the sun, come are the stars, 
And night infolds the day. 

7. True hope is swift, and flies with swallows' wings ; 
Kings it makes gods, and meaner creatures kings. 

8. Put your trust in God, my boys, and keep your 
powder dry. 

9. Fortune makes a fool of him whom she makes her 
darling. 

10. Hardly had the war begun, when England issued a 
" proclamation of neutrality." This acknowledged 
the belligerency of the Confederacy. The North 
had hoped for the sympathy of the English in a con- 
test manifestly in the interest of freedom. When 
England so quickly issued this proclamation, there 
was considerable resentment. France soon took the 
same step, and other states followed. 



USES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 69 

SECTION 113. USES OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 

So far in the study of adverbial clauses, they 
have been used to denote time and place. But there 
are many other relations that may be expressed by 
these clauses. 

(a) If the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the pit. 

(b) Manufacturing towns spring up near coal-mines, 
because coal is a very important source of power. 

(c) Though thy smile be lost to sight, 
To mem'ry thou art dear. 

(d) We sow that we may reap. 

(e) Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon over- 
takes him. 

What is the idea expressed by the clause in (a) ? Does 
the clause modify both? pit? shall fall? Is the clause 
adjective or adverbial ? Answer similar questions about 
(b), (c), (d), and (e). 

Does If in (a) seem to you to have an adverbial idea 
in it ? Has it a connective value ? Does because in (b) 
connect ? Does it modify ? Does Though in (c) connect ? 
Does it modify ? Does that in (d) and (e) connect ? Does 
it modify ? 

Adverbial clauses may express a great variety of 
ideas. The principal ones are time, place, condition, 
concession, cause, purpose, and result. 

Such words as if, though, because, and that, when 
introducing an adverbial clause, are connectives ; 
but they have no adverb idea in them. They are, 
therefore, conjunctions. 

A CONJUNCTION IS A WORD THAT CONNECTS WORDS, PHRASES, 
CLAUSES, OR PROPOSITIONS. 

SECTION 114. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. Tell what idea 
is expressed by the clauses. Tell whether the con- 
nective is a conjunctive pronoun, a conjunctive ad- 
verb, or a conjunction. 



70 GRAMMAR 

1. Justice is always violent to the offending party; for 
every man is innocent in his own eyes. 

2. In Ms high place he had borne himself so well that 
all had feared him, and most had loved him. 

3. Quarrels would not last long if the fault were only 
on one side. 

4. When the fight begins within himself, 
A man's worth something. 

5. A man who has nothing to do is the devil's play- 
fellow. 

6. If ever household affections and love are graceful 
things, they are graceful in the poor. The ties that 
bind the wealthy and the proud at home may be 
forged on earth ; but those which link the poor man 
to his humble hearth are of the true metal and bear 
the stamp of heaven. 

7. The woods are glistening fresh and fair as if 
they had been new-created overnight. The water 
sparkles with merriment, and tiny waves are danc- 
ing and singing all along the shore. Scarlet berries 
of the mountain-ash hang around the lake like a 
necklace of coral. A pair of kingfishers dart back 
and forth across the bay, in flashes of living blue. 
A black eagle swings silently around his circle, far 
up in the cloudless sky. The air is full of pleas- 
ant sounds, but there is no noise. The world is 
full of joyful life, but there is no crowd and no con- 
fusion. All is fresh and sweet, calm and clear and 
bright. 

Henry van Dyke. 

SECTION 115. CI.AUSES OP DEGREE. 

(a) I am very proud of my mother. 

(b) He is not so proud of his mother as he should be. 

(c) I am as proud of my mother as I can be. 

(d) I am more proud of my mother than you are (proud) 
of yours. 

(e) I am prouder of my mother than you (are proud) 
of yours. 



EXERCISE 71 

(f) No one is prouder of his mother than Barrie (is 
proud of his). 

In (a), what adverb modifies proud? In (b) ? What 
does so tell in (b) ? In (b), what besides so tells how 
proud ? Does the adverbial clause seem to you to modify 
proud, or so proud, or so ? If it modifies any one of them, 
it must be what kind of clause ? What does it tell ? In (d), 
what adverb modifies proud? In (e), what in the word 
prouder takes the place of more in (d) ? What do the 
clauses in (d), (e), and (f), modify? What do they tell? 
What words are used to connect these clauses to the 
words they modify ? 

Do you think you would use the word proud in the clause 
in (d) ? Is it a common thing to omit words in clauses like 
those in (e) and (f) ? Are these words necessary to the 
analysis of the sentence ? What is this kind of omission 
called ? 

When two objects having a common quality are 
compared, an adverbial clause indicating degree is 
very frequent. Clauses of degree are generally in- 
troduced by the conjunctive adverbs as and than. 

Ellipsis of the attribute complement, or of the 
copula and the attribute complement, is very com- 
mon in clauses of degree. Elided words must always 
be supplied in analysis. 

SECTION 116. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 220, 
Section 25.) 

SECTION 117. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " The night was as black as pitch " is a com- 
plex, declarative sentence; complex, because . . . ; 
declarative, because . . . The complete subject is " The 
night." The complete predicate is "was as black as 
pitch." The bare subject is "night," modified by the 



72 GRAMMAR 

adjective "The." The bare predicate is "was black," 
composed of the copula " was " and the attribute comple- 
ment "black." The predicate is, therefore, of the first 
type. The attribute complement is modified by the 
adverb "as." "As" is modified by the adverbial clause 
expressing degree. Of the clause, "pitch" is the sub- 
ject; "is" understood is the copula; and "black" 
understood is the attribute complement. The second " as " 
is the connective. 

1. The sun was never so bright, and the piney air was 
balmier sweet than dreams. 

2. Here Skugg lies snug 
As a bug in a rug. 

3. The human body is a steed that goes freest under 
a light rider, and lightest of all riders is a cheerful 
heart. 

4. I envy the good fortune of all walkers, and feel like 
joining myself to every tramp that comes along. 

5. A little foot never supported a great character. 

6. A plank had drifted against the bank, and upon this 
the little creature scrambled out, as dry as the cat at 
home under the roaring kitchen stove. 

7. A cold, unkind word checks and withers the blos- 
som of the dearest love, as the delicate rings of the 
vine are troubled by the faintest breeze. 

8. A barren, stony hillside slopes gradually to the 
marsh where the wrens live. Here I was met by a 
fifth deceiver, a killdeer plover. The killdeer's croco- 
dile tears are bigger and more touchingly genuine 
than even the quail's. And, besides all her tricks, 
she has a voice that fairly drips, woe. 

SECTION 118. NOUN CLAUSES. 

(a) Many believe the statement. 

(b) Many beheve that there never was a good war. 

(c) That there ever was a good war is doubtful. 

(d) The truth is that there never was a good war. 

(e) It is true that there never was a good war. 

(f) The truth that there never has been a good war is 
held by many. 



NOUN CLAUSES 73 

In (a), what is the object complement ? What is the 
object of believe in (b) ? Has this object a subject and a 
predicate ? What is it then ? What is the subject of (c) ? 
What is the attribute in (d) ? What is the real subject in 
(e) ? What use has the clause in (f ) ? What class of words 
is usually subject, object, attribute, and appositive ? 
What, then, is a good name for these clauses ? 

Does that seem to you to have as much meannig as the 
connectives when, if, because, and as? Does it seem to 
have any meaning ? Can it be omitted from some of the 
sentences ? 

A part of a sentence containing a subject and a 
predicate, and ha\n ng the use of a noun, is a clause. 
A sentence containing a noun clause is complex. 

A noun clause may be a subject, an object com- 
plement, an attribute complement, or an appositive 
modifier. 

Most noun clauses are introduced by that. When 
the word that is used to introduce a noun '<Tiiat" 
clause, it has no meaning or connective ifoSf^°^^^ 
value. It is termed an introductory word, c^^^^es. 

Many noun clauses have no introductory word. 
In the illustrative sentences, " that " could be omit- 
ted from all except (c) and (f). 

' A CLAUSE IS A PART OF A SENTENCE CONTAINING A SUBJECT AND 
A PREDICATE, AND HAVING THE USE OF AN ADJECTIVE, AN ADVERB, 
OR A NOUN. 

A SIMPLE SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS BUT ONE SUBJECT 
AND PREDICATE, EITHER OF WHICH MAY BE COMPOUND. 

A COMPOUND SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS TWO OR MORE 
INDEPENDENT STATEMENTS, OR PROPOSITIONS. 

A COMPLEX SENTENCE IS ONE THAT CONTAINS ONE INDEPENDENT 
PROPOSITION AND ONE OR MORE CLAUSES. ^ 

Sometimes one of the independent propositions of 
a compound sentence is modified by a clause, and 
so is complex. In such a case the sentence is said 
to be compound-complex. 

Example. It is not work that kills men ; it is worry. 

^ For punctuation, see page 259, V, 5 and 9- 



74 GRAMMAR 

SECTION 119. NOUN CLAUSES AS ELEMENTS OF 
SENTENCES. 

If we arrange the sentences containing noun 
clauses according to the type of predicate each has, 
the relation of the clause to the whole sentence will 
be clear. 





FIRST 


TYPE. 






SUBJECT. COPULA 




PKEDICATE ATTRIBUTE. 


(a) 


That there ever 








was a good war is 




doubtful. 


(b) 


The truth is 




that there never was 
a good war. 


(c) 


It (that there never 








was a good war) is 




true. 



SECOND TYPE. 
SUBJECT. COPULA-ATTRIBUTE. 

(d) The truth (that there 

never was a good war) is held. 

THIRD TYPE. 
SUBJEOr. COPULA-ATTRIBUTE. OBJECT COMPLEMENT. 

(e) Many believe that there never was 

a good war. 

The subject of the sentence in (a) is '' That there 
ever was a good war." It is the complete subject, 
and it is the bare subject. The noun clause is one 
of the necessary elements of a sentence. 

The sentence (e) lacks an essential element with- 
out the noun clause ; it lacks the object complement. 

In (b), the noun clause is the predicate attribute^ 
one of the necessary elements of a sentence. 

In (c), the noun clause is the real subject, a neces- 
sary element of the sentence. 

In (d), the noun clause is an appositive modifier 
of a noun. 



EXERCISE 75 

SECTION 120. EXERCISE. 

Frame a sentence about printing that shall have 
a noun clause used as a subject; about the Suez 
Canal that shall have a noun clause as object ; about 
air-ships that shall have a noun clause used as attri- 
bute complement; about "a fact" that shall have 
a noun clause as appositive modifier. 

SECTION 121. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. 

Model. " That there ever was a good war is doubtful " 
is a complex, declarative sentence ; complex, because . . . ; 
declarative, because . . . The complete subject is " That 
there ever was a good war " ; the complete predicate is " is 
doubtful," composed of the copula " is " and the attribute 
complement "doubtful." The predicate is, therefore, of 
the first type. Both copula and attribute are unmodified. 
Of the noun clause the complete subject is " a good war " ; 
and the complete predicate is " was ever." The bare sub- 
ject is " war," modified by the adjectives " a " and " good." 
The bare predicate is the copula-attribute "was." ^ It 
is modified by the adverb "ever." "There" is an intro- 
ductory word; and "That" introduces the noun clause. 

1. That the sun is a globe of molten matter is gener- 
ally believed. 

2. Cornwallis learned too late that Washington was 
marching toward Yorktown. 

3. Observers have found that great flocks of migratory 
birds fly at night. 

4. Money is not essential to a gentleman. 

5. A gentleman never dodges; his eyes look straight 
forward. 

^ When the verb is or was denotes the attribute of existence, the verb 
is attributive, and forms the copula-attribute of a sentence. (See Section 
85.) The sentence might read, " That a ffood war ever existed is doubt- 
ful." 



76 GRAMMAR 

6. Emerson said that great men write their names on 
the world. 

7. Csesar is born, and for ages we have a Roman 
Empire. 

8. Statistics show that every third generation is a 
ditch- digger. 

9. He spake well who said that graves are the foot- 
steps of angels. 

10. And 't is my faith that ev'ry flower 

Enjoys the air it breathes. 

11. The night was thick and hazy 
When the Piccadilly Daisy 

Carried down the crew and captain in the sea; 

And I think the water drowned 'em, 

For they never, never found 'em, 
And I know they did n't come ashore with me. 

SECTION 122. COMPOSITION 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 221, Sec- 
tion 26.) 

SECTION 123. NOUN CLAUSES. 

(a) "Will they be Indians? " inquired my brother. 

(b) " They won^t be Indians," I replied at last. 

(c) "Are you quite sure?" Harold asked. 

(d) " Quite," I answered. 

(e) My brother said that they would not be Indians. 

What is the subject of sentence (a) ? the object com- 
plement ? Is the object a phrase or a clause ? What is the 
object complement in (b) ? in (c) ? in (d) ? in (e) ? What 
kind of sentences are they all ? What kind of quotations 
are in the first four sentences ? in the last ? 

In reported conversation, the words that are 
spoken usually form noun clauses that are object 
complements. This is true whether the report gives 
the exact words of the speaker or not ; that is^ whether 
it is a direct or an indirect quotation.^ 

1 For punctuation of quotations, see pages 259 and 260, VIII and IX ; 
V, 7, and VI, 2. 



INDIRECT QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSES 77 

In conversation people omit many words. In (d), 
the full sentence would be " ^ I am quite sure/ I 
answered." Elided words must be supplied in analy- 
sis. 

SECTION 124. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

1. " Diligence is the mother of good luck," said 
Franklin. 

2. The Venerable Bede was called "The Father of 
English Prose." 

3. He translated the Gospel of St. John into English 
so that the uneducated read it. 

4. He worked on this translation until the last day of 
his life. 

5. At last, when evening came, he closed his eyes in 
weariness. 

6. The young man said, " There is yet one sentence, 
dear master." 

7. "Take your pen and write quickly," said Bede. 

8. "Now it is finished," said the youth. 

9. "Yes, it is finished," answered Bede. 

10. He turned to the altar, chanted a few words of 
praise to God, and closed his eyes forever. 

SECTION 125. rNDIRECT QUESTIONS AS NOUN CLAUSES. 

(a) Is it so ? (f) Tell me whether it is so. 

(b) What are you doing ? (g) The question is what are 

you doing. 

(c) Where has he been ? (h) He told me where he had 

been. 

(d) Why do birds sing ? (i) They have no sense of 

why they sing. 

(e) Why did he do it ? (j) It is a question why he 

did it. 

In the first column are direct questions ; in the 
other the same questions are found in an indirect 



78 GRAMMAR 

form. Indirect questions are noun clauses. They 
may be object complements, as in (f) and (h) ; real 
subject, as in (j); attribute complement, as in (g); 
principal term of a prepositional phrase, as in (i). 

The verb of which a quotation or a question is 
the object complement usually belongs to one of 
these three classes : it is 

1. a verb of saying or speaking; as, tells, asks, 
answers ; 

2. a verb denoting some action of the senses ; as, 
hears, sees ; 

3. a verb denoting some action of the mind ; as^ 
thinks, believes. 

SECTION 126. EXERCISE. 

Write direct questions about the following sub- 
jects : surgery, General Wolfe, France, Cubans, a 
Scotch collie, homing pigeons, graphite, a stream, 
Eiffel Tower. 

Change the sentences which you have made so 
that the questions will be indirect. Use three of the 
indirect questions as object complements ; three as 
subjects ; two as attribute complements. 

SECTION 127. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences : — 

1. Tell me who were there. 

2. Show me what you have in your pockets. 

3. He did not understand how a balloon floated. 

4. It's surprising to me how my nephew despises little 
girls. 

5. Tom proved that he had in him the lasting stuff of 
a true man and a hero. 

6. I knew how sweet the water tasted from that kind 
of a cup. 



PARTICIPLES 79 

7. It is wonderful how soon a piano gets into a log hut 
on the frontier. 

8. Over in the meadow, 

In a hole in a tree, 
Lived a mother-bluebird 

And her little bluebirds three. 
"Sing!" said the mother; 
"We sing," said the three; 
So they sang and were glad, 
In the hole in the tree. 

Over in the meadow. 

Where the clear pools shine. 
Lived a green mother-frog 

And her little froggies nine. 
"Croak!" said the mother; 
"We croak," said the nine; 
So they croaked and they plashed. 

Where the clear pools shine. 

SECTION 128. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 222, 
Section 27.) 

SECTION 129. PARTICrPLES. 

(a) The United States, stretching along the coast, was 
still a child among nations. 

(b) Being wise and honest, having learned tact and 
patience from the trials of the Revolution, Wash- 
ington was well fitted for his duties. 

(c) Having elected him President, the people gave him 
their loyal support. 

What is the bare subject and predicate of (a) ? What 
phrase modifies the bare subject ? What is the leading 
word of this phrase ? From what part of speech is stretch- 
ing derived ? What modifies stretching ? 

In (b), what does the phrase Being wise and honest 
modify ? What is the leading word of this phrase .^ From 
what is it derived ? In the sentence " Washington was 



80 GRAMMAR 

wise and honest," what is the construction of '' wise and 
honest " ? Wise and honest in the phrase have the same 
relation to Being as they have to " was " in the sentence. 
" Stretching *' and ** Being " are both derived from verbs; 
they retain some of the characteristics of verbs, but they 
modify nouns, and are, therefore, adjective modifiers. 
Such words are called participles. 

In (b), having learned tact and patience describes 
whom ? What are the leading words ? What is their 
object complement ? Having learned is a verbal adjective, 
or participle. 

In (c), Having elected describes whom ? What relation 
has him to this participle ? What relation has President to 
this participle ? What characteristics of a verb has this 
participle ? 

What three kinds of complements may follow a parti- 
ciple ? May a participle be modified as a verb is modified ? 
What may a participle modify ? 

A participle is derived from a verb ; it may be 
modified like a verb ; it may be completed by an 
attribute, object, or objective complement; and it 
is an adjective modifier of a noun or pronoun. 

A PARTICIPLE IS A VERBAL ADJECTIVE. 

A phrase in which the leading word is a participle 
is called a participial phrase. 

SECTION 130. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

Model. "Having elected him President, the people 
gave him their loyal support" is a simple, declarative 
sentence. The complete subject is "the people, Having 
elected him President " ; and the complete predicate is 
"gave him their loyal support." The bare subject is 
"people," modified by the adjective "the," and the 
participial phrase "Having elected him President." Of 



EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS 81 

this phrase the base is "Having elected." The participle 
is completed by the object complement "him" and the 
objective complement "President." The bare predicate 
is "gave support," composed of the copula-attribute 
"gave" and the object complement "support." The 
predicate is, therefore, of the third type. " Gave " is modi- 
fied by the indirect object " him." " Support " is modified 
by the adjective "loyal" and the possessive "their." 

1. A penny saved is a penny earned. 

2. The valley, stretching far beloAV, is white with 
blossoming cherry-trees. 

3. God is a shower to the heart burned up with grief. 

4. God is a sun to the face deluged with tears. 

5. Kindled by the smile of his celestial mistress, 
Marquette knew no fear. 

6. Plpng their paddles, they passed the Straits of 
Mackinac. 

7. On either hand rolled the prairie, dotted with 
groves, browsing elk, and deer. 

8. They glided calmly down the tranquil stream, by 
islands choked with trees and matted with entang- 
ling ^^nes. 

9. Before them a wide and rapid current coursed 
athwart their way, by the foot of lofty heights 
wrapped thick in forests. 

10. They steered their canoes on the eddies of the 
Mississippi. 

11. Having gained truth, keep truth. 

12. The tongue is ever turning to the aching tooth. 

13. Up from the meadows, rich with corn. 
Clear in the cool September morn, 
The clustered spires of Frederick stand. 
Green-walled by the hills of Maryland. 

Whittier. 

SECTION 131. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 224, 
Section 28.) 



82 GRAMMAR 

SECTION 132. INFINITIVES. 

(a) To yield is often a mark of strength. 

(b) To be prejudiced is to be weak. 

(c) Learn of the Httle nautilus to sail. 

(d) My father taught me to know things definitely. 

(e) To make a shiftless boy a thrifty man requires skill 
and patience. 

From what part of speech are be, sail, know, derived ? 
In (d), what does definitely modify? What is things the 
object of ? In (e), what is the object of make ? What is the 
objective complement ? What class of words are com- 
pleted by object and objective complements ? These 
w^ords, then, have some of the characteristics of a verb. 

In (b), what is the relation of weak to be ? Think of the 
sentence, "He is weak." What relation has prejudiced 
to be? This form of the verb may be completed by an 
attribute complement. 

What is the subject of (a) ? of (b) ? of (e) ? What is the 
object of Learn in (c) ? of taught in (d) ? What is the 
attribute complement of is in (b) ? What words are usu- 
ally subjects and objects ? Then these words, which have 
many characteristics of verbs, have the uses of nouns. 
They are verbal nouns, and are called infinitives. 

AN mrmiTivE is a verbal noun. 

An infinitive, like a noun, may be used as : — 

1. a subject; 

2. an object complement; 

3. an attribute complement. 

An infinitive, like a verb, may itself be completed 
by:- 

1. an object complement; 

2. an attribute complement; 

3. an objective complement. 

An infinitive, like a verb, may be modified by : — 

1. an adverb; 

2. an adverbial phrase; 

3. an adverbial clause. 



EXERCISE 83 

SECTION 133. EXERCISE. 

Frame two sentences in which an infinitive is a 
subject; two in which it is an object; two in which 
it is an attribute. In one of these sentences have the 
infinitive completed by an attribute complement ; in 
one by an object complement ; in one by an object- 
ive complement. 

SECTION 134. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model. 

Model. " My father taught me to know things defin- 
itely" is a simple, declarative sentence. The complete 
subject is "My father"; and the complete predicate is 
"taught me to know things definitely." The bare subject 
is "father," modified by the possessive modifier "My." 
The bare predicate is "taught to know things definitely," 
composed of the copula-attribute "taught" and the 
object complement, "to know things definitely." The 
predicate is, therefore, of the third type. " Taught " 
is modified by the indirect object "me." "To know" is 
completed by the object complement "things"; and it 
is modified by the adverb "definitely." 

1. The House of Representatives refused to pass bills 
of supply. 

2. To get good out of all things and all men is the mark 
of a great man. 

3. To select the second best in life is to dull one's 
instincts for higher things. 

4. It is not easy to feel honest joy at the success of 
another. 

5. The king meant to try the question with America. 

6. The people refused to pay taxes. 

7. To lose one's temper is to weaken one's power. 

8. To lose courage is to grow old before one's time. 

9. To live in hearts we leave behind is not to die. 



84 GRAMMAR 

SECTION 135. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 224, 
Section 29.) 

SECTION 136. INFINITIVES ENDING IN ING, OR GERUJJTDS. 

(a) Rhyming easily does not make a poet. 

(b) Reading good stories is profitable. 

(c) Being well is life's greatest blessing. 

(d) We learn writing only by persistent practice. 

(e) By making Lincoln President, the people showed 
their trust in plain common sense. 

(f) Doing nothing for others is the undoing of our- 
selves. 
(g) Religion is using everything for God. 

Find in each sentence a word derived from a verb. 
Show that each of these words still retains some of the 
characteristics of a verb. 

What is the subject of (a) ? of (b) ? of (c) ? of (f) ? 
What is the object complement in (d) } the attribute in 
(g) ? the principal word of the first prepositional phrase in 
(e) ? All these words have noun uses. They are verbal 
nouns, or infinitives. 

Infinitives that end in ing are called gerunds. 

Participles, infinitives, and gerunds, all being 
derived from verbs, are included under the general 
term, verbals. 

Care must be taken to distinguish gerunds from 
participles. A participle is an adjective ; a gerund 
is a noun. The use of a word, not its spelling, de- 
termines what it is in each case. 

SECTION 137. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. After analysis, 
select the participles and gerunds, giving the reason 
for your classification. 



EXERCISE 85 

Model. "Next to being a great poet is the power of 
understanding one" is a simple, declarative sentence. 
The complete subject is "the power of understanding 
one"; and the complete predicate is "is next to being a 
great poet." The bare subject is "power." It is modified 
by the adjective " the " and the prepositional phrase " of 
understanding one." "Understanding" is the principal 
word, and it is completed by the object complement 
"one." The bare predicate is "is Next," composed of the 
copula " is " and the attribute complement " Next." The 
predicate is, therefore, of the first type. The attribute 
complement "Next" is modified by the prepositional 
phrase " to being a great poet." Of this phrase " being " is 
the principal word, and it is completed by the attribute 
complement "poet." "Poet" is modified by the adjec- 
tives "a" and "great." 

1. Being perfectly natural and composed, he dis- 
pelled all suspicion. 

2. We saw the big moon rising lazily and warm across 
the lake. 

3. By rising early, he did his day's work before nooU. 

4. Hearing of this action by Parliament, the Virginia 
House passed a series of resolves. 

5. Upon hearing of this action by Parliament, the 
Virginia House passed a series of resolves. 

6. They denounced a standing army. 

7. A small guard, irritated beyond endurance, fired 
into the crowd. 

8. The first act was the Boston Port Bill, closing the 
port of Boston. 

9. The second act changed the charter by extending 
the power of the crown. 

10. Town-meetings for electing officers were held only 
with the governor's permission. 

11. A fourth bill provided for quartering troops in 
America. 

12. In England a designing courtier was intent upon 
making, himself king. 



86 GRAMMAR 

13. We never see the sunrise by looking into the west. 

14. The fragrant water-lily lies moored in the golden 
August weather. 

15. Longfellow's tender way of doing a kindness to 
others was most exquisite. 

16. Bland as the morning breath of June 

The southwest breezes play; 
And, through its haze, the winter noon 

Seems warm as summer's day. 
The snow-plumed Angel of the North 

Has dropp'd his icy spear; 
Again the mossy earth looks forth, 

Again the streams gush clear. 

The fox his hillside cell forsakes, 

The muskrat leaves his nook, 
The bluebird in the meadow-brakes 
Is singing with the brook. 
"Bear up, O Mother Nature!" cry 

Bird, breeze, and streamlet free; 
"Our winter voices prophesy 
Of summer days to thee." 

The Night is mother of the Day, 

The Winter of the Spring, 
' And ever upon old Decay 

The greenest mosses cling. 
Behind the cloud the starlight lurks, 

Through showers the sunbeams fall; 
For God, who loveth all his works. 

Has left his Hope with all. Whittier. 

SECTION 138, COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 225, 
Section 30.) 



GRAMMAR. 

PART 11. 



SECTION 139. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

In Part I of this book, words have been classi- 
fied according to their uses in sentences. These 
classes are called parts of speech. 

A PART OF SPEECH IS ONE OF THE GLASSES INTO WHICH WORDS 
ARE DIVIDED ACCORDING TO THEIR USES IN SENTENCES. 

There are eight parts o£ speech : nouns, pro- 
nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, con- 
junctions, and interjections. 

SECTION 140. EXERCISE. 

Classify the words in the following paragraph as 
nouns, pronouns, verbs, and the other parts of 
speech represented : — 

What a pleasant thing it is to see a little country lad 
riding one of the plough-horses to water, thumping his 
naked heels against the ribs of his stolid steed, and pulling 
hard on the halter as if it were the bridle of Bucephalus ! 
Or perhaps it is a riotous company of boys that have come 
down to the old swimming-hole, and are now splashing 
and gambolling through the water like a drove of white 
seals very much sunburned. You had hoped to catch a 
goodly trout in that hole, but what of that ? The sight of 
a harmless hour of mirth is better than a fish any day. 

Van Dyke, from Litlle Rivers. 

SECTION 141. NOUNS. 
A NOUN IS A WORD THAT NAMES AN OBJECT. (See Section 9.) 

Many words not usually nouns become nouns 



88 GRAMMAR 

when they are used to name objects of which we 
think or speak. Notice the sentences below : — 

(a) None but the brave deserve the fair. 

(b) " Yes *' is easily said; " no " causes some people to 
stammer. 

(c) " As " will usually be found in its proper place; 
" like " is a word to be carefully watched. 

In Section 140, horse is a name common to many 
animals ; but Bucephalus is the name of one par- 
ticular horse owned by Alexander the Great. Horse 
is a common noun; Bucephalus is a proper noun. 

A COMMON NOUN IS A WORD THAT NAMES ANY ONE OF A CLASS. 
A PROPER NOUN IS A WORD THAT NAMES AN INDIVIDUAL TO DIS- 
TINGUISH IT FROM OTHERS OF THE CLASS TO WHICH IT BELONGS.^ 

(a) A flock of snowbirds came fluttering down into my 
fir-tree. 

(b) The priests of Israel were chosen from the tribe of 
Levi. 

(c) And the Philistine said, " I defy the armies of Israel 
this day." 

Does the word flock mean one or more than one object ? 
Does it mean one flock ? Can there be more than one 
flock? In (b), is one tribe or more than one meant? Is 
one object or more than one meant ? Is more than one 
person meant when the word army is u^ed ? Can there be 
more than one army ? Does each of these words denote a 
collection of individual objects ? Would a good name for 
this kind of noun be collective ? (Look in a dictionary 
for the word "collective.") 

A COLLECTIVE NOUN IS ONE THAT IN THE SINGULAR NAMES A COL- 
LECTION OF OBJECTS. 

SECTION 142. EXEKCISE. 

Write the list of nouns given below, classifying 
them as common or proper. Be sure to begin all 
the proper nouns with a capital letter. 

1 For the use of capitals in writing proper nouns, see pag-e 259, I, 2. 



NOUNS 



89 



child 

botany 

boston 


friendship 

victoria 

June 


eagle 

hyena 

earth 


germany 

servant 

heart 


street 


flower 


neptune 


wisdom 


Oregon 
mandeville 


tar 
acid 


factory 
word 


bible 
alps 


davy 
friend 


lowell 
Sunday 


arctic 
charles 


St. peter's 
canary 



SECTION 143. EXEBCISE. 

Classify the nouns in the following sentences : - — 

1. Give me neither poverty nor riches. 

2. The more wheels there are in a watch or a brain, 
the more trouble they are to take care of. 

3. I like books, — I was born and bred among them, 
— and have the easy feeling, when I get into their 
presence, that a stable-boy has among horses. 

4. Love and Death enter boarding-houses without 
asking the price of board. 

5. Like an army defeated 
The snow hath retreated. 

6. Forth into the forest straightway 
All alone walked Hiawatha. 

7. Meantime the heaven wept upon our heads; and 
the windows grew brighter as the night increased in 
darkness. 

8. But though French soldiers show to ill advantage 
on parade, on the march they are gay, alert, and 
willing, like a troop of fox-hunters. 

9. I have always been fond of maps, and can voyage 
in an atlas with the greatest enjoyment. 

10. As I sat outside of the hotel in the course of the 
afternoon, the sweet, groaning thunder of the organ 
floated out of the church like a summons. 

11. 'T is now the summer of your youth. Time has not 
cropt the roses from your cheek, though sorrow^ 
long has washed them. 



90 GRAMMAR 

SECTION 144. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 226, Sec- 
tion 31.) 

SECTION 145. PRONOUNS. 

A PRONOUN IS A WORD THAT REPRESENTS AN OBJECT BUT DOES 
NOT NAME IT. (See Section 11.) 

(a) It was a summer evening, 

Old Kaspar's work was done, 
And he before his cottage door 

Was sitting in the sun; 
And by him sported on the green 
His Httle grandchild, Wilhelmine. 

(b) Call not that man wretched who has a child to love. 

(c) Music was a rose-lipped shell that murmured of 
the eternal sea. 

(d) He that is stricken blind cannot forget 
The precious treasure of his eyesight lost. 

(e) What is glory ? 

(f) Who is the King of Glory? 

(g) To be or not to be, — that is the question. 

(h) Although the amoeba has neither lungs nor gills, it 
breathes in oxygen and gives out carbonic-acid gas, 
which is just what a horse does with its organs of 
respiration. 

Perhaps the best way to realize the value of pronouns 
is to try to write a sentence without them. In (a), instead 
of the pronouns referring to Kaspar substitute the name 
Kaspar. What, then, does the use of pronouns avoid ? It 
is difficult to express the thought in (b) without the use 
of the pronoun who, although it could be written. That 
man has a child to love ; call not that man wretched. In 
what respect is the sentence with the pronoun better than 
the sentence without the pronoun ? Express the thought 
of (c) without using the pronoun. What is the advantage 
in the use of the pronoun ? 

To express the thought in (d) without the use of the 
pronoun, it would be necessary to insert, in place of he, 
the name of every person that has been stricken blind. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 91 

Again, when the pronoun asks a question, as in (e) and 
(f), it is nearly impossible to find another way of express- 
ing it. What, then, is the advantage of the pronouns in 
(d), (e), and (f) ? 

Pronouns serve two purposes in our Ian- Need of 
guage. Pronouns. 

1. They avoid needless and awkward repetition, and 
give grace and brevity to sentences; 

2. They stand for indefinite or general subjects of 
thought. 

In (a), what word names the object which he, his, and 
him represent? In (b), what word names the object to 
which who refers ? The word that names the object 
referred to by a pronoun is called the antecedent of the 
pronoun. Name the antecedents of the pronouns in (c) ; 
(d). What does that stand for, or refer to, in (g) ? Is its 
antecedent a word ? a phrase ? a clause ? Does which 
refer to amoeba in (h) ? to lungs ? to oxygen ? What, 
then ? Is its antecedent a word, a phrase, or a proposi- 
tion ? In (e), is the antecedent expressed? Is it ever 
expressed when the pronoun asks a question ? Could it 
be found if the answer to the question were given ? 

THE ANTECEDENT OF A PRONOUN IS THE WORD OR WORDS NAMING 
THE OBJECT WHICH THE PRONOUN REPRESENTS. 

The antecedent generally precedes the pronoun ; 
but it may come after it. When the pronoun asks 
a question, the antecedent is found in the answer. 
The antecedent is usually a single word ; but it may 
be a phrase, or a clause, or a proposition. 

SECTION 146. CLASSES OF PRONOUlSrS. 

(a) As often as I came back to his door, his love met 
me on the threshold. 

(b) In friendship, your heart is like a bell struck every 
time your friend is in trouble. 

(c) Two persons cannot remain friends long, if they 
cannot forgive each other little failures. 



92 GRAMMAR 

(d) No man thinks himself covetous or stingy. 

(e) She arrays herself like the lily, 
In robes of shining white. 

(f) A dream itself is but a shadow. 

(g) An honest man is he, and hates the slime 
That sticks on filthy deeds. 

(h) Whosoever exalteth himself shall be abased. 
(i) I will do whatsoever thou sayest unto me. 
(j) Who can refute a sneer? 
(k) What profiteth it a man, if he gain the whole world 

and lose his own soul ? 
(1) The Lord is my light and my salvation; whom 

shall I fear ? the Lord is the strength of my life ; 

of whom shall I be afraid ? 
(m) That is Lee's home on Arlington Heights; this is 

Mount Vernon, the home of Washington. 
(n) Cornelia said of her boys, " These are my jewels." 
(o) We always like those who admire us; we do not 

always like those whom we admire. 
(p) Many have tried to reach the North Pole. 
(q) No one can shirk responsibility. 
(r) Each must act for himself. 
(s) Love all, trust few, do wrong to none. 

Group the pronouns in these sentences that plainly 
refer to the speaker ; those that clearly refer to the person 
spoken to; those that refer to the person spoken of. 

These are called personal pronouns, because they 
clearly indicate what person is meant. 

Do "himself," "herself," "myself," and "yourself" 
tell who is meant, — the speaker, the person spoken to, 
or the person spoken of ? Why might they be called 
compound personal pronouns ? 

What kind of pronoun is That in (g) ? (See Section 
100.) In (h) and (i), what syllables have been added to 
the simple conjunctive pronouns ? Can you think of any 
other syllables that are sometimes added to "who," or 
"which," or "what" ? What would be a good name for 
these pronouns ? 

In (j), (k), and (1), pronouns are used to ask questions. 
What would be a good name for them ? 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS 93 

In (m), what two words represent objects without 
naming them ? Do these two words point out, so that 
you know that one is near and the other far ? In (n), what 
word does the same thing ? In (o), a word is used to point 
out a class of persons, though it does not name them. 
These words are called demonstrative pronouns. 

Does Many, in (p), represent persons without naming 
them ? What words in (q), (r), and (s) do the same ? Do 
you know exactly to whom the words many, one, each, 
all, few, and none refer? They represent objects inde- 
finitely, and so are called indefinite pronouns. 

Pronouns are divided into five classes : personal, 
conjunctive, interrogative, demonstra- classes of 
tive, and indefinite. Pronouns. 

A PERSONAL PRONOUN IS ONE THAT INDICATES WHETHER THE OB- 
JECT REPRESENTED IS THE SPEAKER, THE PERSON OR THING SPOKEN 
TO, OR THE PERSON OR THING SPOKEN OF. 

The principal personal pronouns are I, thou, you, 
he, she, and it. (For all the forms of these words, 
see Section 165.) 

The words which represent the speaker are called 
first personal pronouns ; those which represent the 
person or thing spoken to are called second per- 
sonal pronouns ; and those which represent the per- 
son or thing spoken of are called third personal 
pronouns. 

Forms of the simple personal pronouns are united 
with the syllable self or selves to form the compound 

^ rni Personal 

compound personal pronouns. Iney are Pronouns. 
myself, ourselves, thyself, yourself, yourselves, him- 
self, herself, itself, and themselves. 

A CONJUNCTHTE PRONOUN IS ONE THAT JOINS A DEPENDENT CLAUSE 
TO THE WORD IT MODIFIES, 

The principal conjunctive pronouns are who, 
which, that, what ; rarely but and as. 

These pronouns, because they relate, or refer, to 



94 GRAMMAR 

the object named by the antecedent, are often called 
relative pronouns. 

Forms of the simple conjunctive pronouns are 
Compound united with the syllables so, ever, and 

Conjunctive j n j_i 

Pronouns. soever to lorm the compound conjunc- 
tive pronouns. 

AN INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN IS ONE USED TO ASK A QUESTION. 

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and 
what. 

A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN IS ONE THAT POINTS OUT OR DIRECTS 
ATTENTION TO AN OBJECT WITHOUT NAMING IT.i 

The demonstratives are this, these, that, and those. 

AN INDEFINITE PRONOUN IS ONE THAT REPRESENTS OBJECTS IN- 
DEFINITELY WITHOUT NAMING THEM. 

The indefinites in most common use are: one 
none, few, many, other, another, all, any, several, 
some, each, either, neither, each other, one another. 

The words given here as demonstrative and inde- 
finite pronouns are at times used as modifiers of 
nouns, and are then adjectives. 

SECTION 147. EXERCISE. 

Classify the pronouns in the following sentences : 

1. It is an ill wind that blows nobody good. 

2. Put off thy shoes from off thy feet, for the place 
whereon thou standest is holy ground. 

3. He smiled over my donkey-driving, as I might have 
smiled over his orthography, or his green tail-coat. 

4. No one knows the stars who has not slept beneath 
them. 

5. If we find but one to whom we can speak out of our 
heart freely, we have no ground of quarrel with the 
world or God. 

6. A person is always startled when he hears himself 
seriously called an old man for the first time. 

7. Nobody is so old he does n't think he can live a year. 
^ See a dictionary for definitions of demonstrate and demonstrative. 



TWELVE CONSTRUCTIONS OF NOUNS 95 

8. But what are past or future joys ? 

The present is our own; 
And he is wise who best employs 
The passing hour alone. 

SECTION 148. EXERCISE. 

Bring to class ten sentences selected from books. 
Of these, three shall contain personal pronouns ; two, 
conjunctive pronouns; one, an interrogative pro- 
noun ; one, an indefinite pronoun ; two, compound 
personal pronouns ; and one, a compound conjunc- 
tive pronoun. 

SECTION 149. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 228, 
Section 32.) 

SECTION 150. EXERCISE. 

Classify the nouns and pronouns in the letter by 
Phillips Brooks, printed on pages 199 and 200. 

SECTION 151. TWELVE CONSTRUCTIONS OP NOUNS. 

(a) Happiness is the natural flow^er of duty. (Sec- 
tion 4.) 

(b) Government has been a fossil ; it should be a plant. 
(Section 16.) 

(c) No friendship can excuse a sin. (Section 34.) 

(d) God is making commerce his missionary. (Sec- 
tion 42.) 

(e) Circumstances are beyond the control of man ; but 
his conduct is in his own power. (Section 66.) 

(f) Pilate gave Barabbas his freedom. (Section 71.) 

(g) I'll not budge an inch. (Section 75.) 
(h) The woodman^s axe lies free, 

And the reaper's work is done. (Section 77.) 
(i) It is the lark, the herald of the morn. (Section 77.) 
(j) I find the Englishman to be him of all men who 

stands firmest in his shoes. (Section 248, 5.) 



96 GRAMMAR 

(k) Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee 
Jest and youthful JoUity. (Section 90.) 

(1) He looked me all over, his good, honest, brawny 
countenance shining with interest, as a boy might 
look upon a lion or an alligator. (Section 236, 4.) 

In these sentences are illustrations of all the possible 
constructions of nouns. Ask yourselves the use of every 
noun printed in full-faced type. If you do not know them 
all, the section numbers will suggest the answers. 

What four uses of a noun should you say were the most 
common ? Is there any change in the form of the noun to 
indicate these changes in its use ? What one use of a noun 
has a special form ? 

The noun may have twelve uses in a sentence. It 
may be : — 

* 1. a subject; 

2. an attribute complement; 

3. an object complement; 

4. an objective complement; 

5. an indirect object; 

6. an adverbial modifier; 

7. the principal word of a prepositional phrase; 

8. a possessive modifier; 

9. an appositive modifier; 

10. a vocative; 

11. a subject of an infinitive; 

12. an independent element with a participle. 

SECTION 152. TWELVE CONSTBUCTIONS OF PRONOUNS. 

(a) They that touch pitch will be defiled. 

(b) This is he that was spoken of by the prophet 
Esaias. 

(c) We learned too late the man that he was. 

(d) There is no killing the suspicion that deceit has 
once begotten. 

(e) What have they made him now ? 

(f) As governor of the state, which a political up- 
heaval had made him, he displayed the same 
daring stupidity. 



EXERCISE 97 

(g) In his autobiography, Frankhn has told us the 
interesting story of his hfe. 

(h) The man whom Hfe has granted health holds her 
richest blessing. 

(i) The distance which baby has come is long for 
little feet. 

(j) I will chide no breather in the world but myself, 
against whom I know most faults. 

(k) Shall we forget the sacred debt 
We owe our mother isle ? 

(1) Happy the man, whose wish and care 
A few paternal acres bound. 
(m) And then we saw the pope, — him toward whom a 
great part of the Christian world looks for guid- 
ance. 

(n) A proud mother watched him grow. 

(o) Caius Gracchus, whom Cornelia had watched 
grow to manhood, was his mother's joy and sor- 
row. 

(p) He having proved his worth, the rest of us slipped 
away to consider our own dishonorable part in the 
matter. 

(q) O thou that rollest above, round as the shield of 
my fathers ! 

Pronouns have the same constructions as nouns. 

SECTION 153. EXERCISE. 

In the sentences above, find pronouns in twelve 
different constructions. 

In the same sentences find all the different uses 
of conjunctive pronouns. There are not twelve. 
How many are there? Which are the most com- 
mon ? 

SECTION 154. EXERCISE. 

Frame three sentences in which pronouns are used 
as subjects, — one containing a conjunctive pronoun, 



98 GRAMMAR 

one an interrogative, and one a demonstrative pro- 
noun. Bring sentences in which a personal pronoun 
is used as object ; a conjunctive pronoun as object ; 
an interrogative as object. Frame a sentence in 
which an interrogative is used as attribute comple- 
ment. (See Section 88.) Frame another in which an 
indefinite pronoun is an attribute complement. Frame 
sentences using the four kinds of pronouns as indi- 
rect objects. Frame sentences in which each kind 
of pronoun is used as the principal word of a pre- 
positional phrase. 

SECTION 155. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 229, 
Section 33.) 

SECTION 156. INFLECTION FOR NUMBER. 

Write sentences in which the word " player " is used as 
subject; object; principal word of a prepositional phrase ; 
indirect object; and as possessive modifier. Write sen- 
tences in which the plural of the word " player " is used 
in the same ways. 

In your sentences, how many forms of the word are 
found used to denote one ? How many forms denote 
more than one ? One of the forms in the singular is used 
when the word is a possessive modifier. For how many 
constructions has the other form been used ? Is this true 
for the plural also ? 

Frame sentences in which the first personal pronoun is 
used as subject; object complement; principal word of a 
prepositional phrase; indirect object; attribute comple- 
ment. How many forms of this pronoun are there in the 
singular ? in the plural ? 

Nouns have two forms in the singular and two in 
the plural. One of these forms is used for one pur- 
pose only, — to denote possession. The other form 
is used for every other construction of the noun. 



PLURALS OF NOUNS 99 

Personal pronouns have three forms in the singu- 
lar and three in the plural. One is used to denote 
possession ; and of the other two, each has a vari- 
ety of uses. 

NUMBER IS THAT MODIFICATION OF A NOUN OR PRONOUN WHICH 
INDICATES WHETHER ONE OBJECT IS MEANT OR MORE THAN ONE. 

THE SINGULAR NUMBER OF A NOUN OR PRONOUN INDICATES BUT 
ONE OBJECT. 1 

THE PLURAL NUMBER OF A NOUN OR PRONOUN INDICATES MORE 
THAN ONE OBJECT. 

SECTION 157. FORMATION OF PLURALS OF NOUNS. 

1. The regular method of forming the plural of 
English nouns is by adding s to the singular form. 

2. When the singular form of a noun ends in s, 
X, z, sh, ch, or Avith the sound of zh, the plural is 
usually formed by adding es to the singular. 

3. Fifteen nouns ending in f or fe change these 
letters to v and add es to form their plurals.'^ They 
are beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, 
sheaf, shelf, thief, wharf, wife, wolf. 

4. Nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant 
generally add es to form their plurals ; as, calico, 
calicoes. Other nouns ending in o are regular ; as 
cameo, cameos. 

Exceptions. The following nouns ending in o pre- 
ceded by a consonant add s only to form their plural: 
albino, alto, banjo, canto, casino, chromo, contralto, 
dynamo, halo, lasso, memento, octavo, piano, proviso, 
quarto, solo, soprano, two, tyro. 

5. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant 
change the y to i and add es to form their plurals ; 
as, lily, lilies. But when the y is preceded by a vowel, 
these words are perfectly regular in forming their 
plurals ; as, valley, valleys. 

1 See, however, definition of " Collective Noun," Section 141. 

2 The word '' staff " has two plurals, " staffs " and " staves." 

LOFa 



100 GRAMMAR 

SECTION 158. EXERCISE. 

Write the plural of the following nouns. Use 
the plurals for a spelling test. 

Arithmetic, desk, march, apostrophe, lioness, 

grammar, hyphen, brush, lynx, picture, 

bench, comma, box, lion, piano. 

Write sentences containing the plurals of three 
words whose singular ends in o ; three whose singu- 
lar ends in f or fe ; three whose singular ends in y. 

SECTION 159. FORMATION OF PLURALS — (continued). 

6. Many nouns in Old English formed their plu- 
rals by the addition of en. Some of these retain 
this ending in our modern English ; as, ox, oxen. 

7. Some nouns form their plurals by changing the 
vowel in the middle of the word. These are Old 
English nouns; such as, mouse, mice; tooth, teeth. 

8. Some nouns adopted from foreign languages 
form their plurals as they regularly do in those lan- 
guages ; as, analysis, analyses ; stratum, strata ; phe- 
nomenon, phenomena. 

9. The plurals of letters, figures, symbols, and 
words, when considered simply as words, are formed 
by adding the apostrophe and s ; as, cross your t's 
and dot your i's ; give the table of 7's ; do not begin 
paragraphs with and's. 

10. Proper names form their plurals in two 
ways : it is correct to say " the Misses Brown," or 
" the Miss Browns." Of men the form is always 
"Messrs. Brown." 

11. Compound nouns, made up of a noun and 
some modifier of it, form their plurals by making 
the principal words plural ; as, court-martial, courts- 



INFLECTION FOR CASE 101 

martial; son-in-law, sons-in-law. Some compounds, 
however, are so much like single words that they 
are so regarded, and form their plurals regularly ; 
as, forget-me-not, forget-me-nots ; cupful, cupf uls. 

12. Some words ending in man are not com- 
pounds, and form their plural by adding s ; as, Ger- 
man, firman, Ottoman, Mussulman, Brahman, talis- 
man. 

13. Many nouns have the same form in the singu- 
lar and plural ; as, sheep, deer. 

SECTION 160. EXERCISE. 

Write sentences containing the plurals of the fol- 
lowing words : parenthesis, datum, tableau, for- 
mula, memorandum, alumnus, oasis, curriculum. 
You may need to use a dictionary to learn what 
these words mean and how they form their plurals. 

Write the plurals of the following words : piano- 
forte, handful, stepson, talisman, Brahman, Miss 
Jones, Dr. Little, aid-de-camp, juryman, command- 
er-in-chief, good-for-nothing. 

SECTION 161. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 230, 
Section 34.) 

SECTION 162. INFLECTION FOR CASE. 

CASE IS THAT MODIFICATION OF A NOUN OR PRONOUN WHICH INDI- 
CATES ITS CONSTRUCTION IN A SENTENCE. 

Because there are three forms of a pronoun to 
indicate its use in a sentence, nouns and pronouns 
are said to have three cases. They are nominative, 
possessive, and objective. 

A NOUN OR PRONOUN IS IN THE NOMINATrVE CASE WHEN IT IS 
A SUBJECT, AN ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT.^ A VOCATIVE, OR IN THE 
ABSOLUTE CONSTRUCTION. 

^ An attribute complement of an infinitive with an assumed subject (see 
Section 248, 5) is in the objective case. 



102 GRAMMAR 

A NOUN OR PRONOUN IS IN THE OBJECTIVE CASE WHEN IT IS AN 
OBJECT COMPLEMENT, AN INDIRECT OBJECT, AN OBJECTIVE COMPLE- 
MENT, AN ADVERBIAL MODIFIER, THE PRINCIPAL WORD OF A PRE- 
POSITIONAL PHRASE, OR THE SUBJECT OF AN INFINITIVE. 

A NOUN OR PRONOUN IS IN THE POSSESSIVE CASE WHEN IT IS A 
POSSESSIVE MODIFIER. 

AN APPOSITIVE IS ALWAYS IN THE CASE OF THE WORD IT MODI- 
FIES. IT MAY BE NOMINATIVE, OBJECTIVE, OR POSSESSIVE. 

(It must be clear that a noun has in reahty but two 
case-forms: a possessive and a common case-form. This 
last is used for all the constructions of the nominative and 
objective.) 

SECTION 163. FORMATION OF POSSESSIVES. 

1. To form the possessive of singular nouns, add 
an apostrophe and s to the simple form of the noun ; 
as, lady, lady's. 

2. If, however, the word ends in an s sound, and 
has more than one syllable, only the apostrophe is 
usually added to form the possessive ; as, for good- 
ness' sake, Xerxes' army. 

3. As most words in the plural end in s, to avoid 
the hissing sound of another s, only the apostrophe 
is added to the plural forms to make the possessive 
plural; as, ladies, ladies'. 

4. If the plural does not end in s, the possessive 
is formed by the addition of an apostrophe and s ; as, 
men, men's ; oxen, oxen's. 

5. The possessive of compound words is formed 
by adding the apostrophe and s to the last word ; as, 
commander-in-chief's, son-in-law's. 

6. The possessive of appositive phrases is formed 
by adding the sign to the last word only ; as, my 
cousin John's book. 

7. When two or more nouns name the joint pos- 
sessors or owners of anything, the possessive sign is 
added to the last only ; as, Ivers and Pond's pianos, 



DECLENSION 103 

Gilbert and Sullivan's operas, Smith and Oakley's 
stores. 

8. If two or more nouns name separate owners of 
anything, or if the names are connected by or or 
nor, each word takes the sign of the possessive ; as, 
Beethoven's and Mozart's sonatas ; Smith's and Oak- 
ley's stores; Webster's or Garrison's orations. 

9. The word of is frequently used before a name 
to denote possession ; as, the works of Bach, for 
Bach's works. 

Sometimes it is necessary to use both signs of the pos- 
sessive to avoid being misunderstood. For example, if 
you read " Rembrandt's picture is one of the Double 
finest I have ever seen," you would not know Possessives. 
whether it means a portrait of the great painter, or a pic- 
ture done by this artist. To avoid this, both signs of the 
possessive are used, — the word of followed by the name 
with the possessive sign. "This picture of Rembrandt's 
is one of the finest I have ever seen " is perfectly clear to 
all. This form of expression is called the double possess- 
ive, because in it both kinds of possessives are used. 

In general, only the names of persons, animals, 
and personified objects take the sign of the possess- 
ive. With other names the word of is used. We 
say " the leaves of the tree," not " the tree's leaves " ; 
" the seam of the rock," not " the rock's seam." 

SECTION 164. EXERCISE. 

Write sentences containing the possessive of the 
following words : Charles ; Mason and Hamlin 
(together) ; Beethoven and Wagner (separately) ; 
the first President ; Washington ; Shakespeare. 

SECTION 165. DECIiENSION. 

The change in the form of a word is called inflec- 
tion. A word is said to be inflected when all its 



104 



GRAMMAR 



forms are given in order. Nouns and pronouns are 
inflected for number and case. The inflection of a 
noun or pronoun is cafled its declension. 



Nominative and Objective 
Possessive 

Nominative and Objective 
Possessive 

Nominative and Objective 
Possessive 

Nominative and Objective 
Possessive 



Declension of Nouns. 

SINGULAR. 

friend 
friend's 



man 
man's 

Will 
Will's 



PLURAL. 

friends 
friends' 

men 
men's 



James 

James's (pronounced 
Jameses) 



Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 

Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 

Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 



Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 



Declension of Pronouns, 
personal pronouns. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

I we 

my or mine our or ours 

me us 

thou or you ye or you 

thy or thine, your or yours your or yours 

thee or you you 



he she it 

his her or hers its 
him her it 

Interrogative Pronouns 

SINGULAR. 

who 

whose 

whom 



they 

their or theirs 

them 



who 

whose 

whom 



USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS 



105 



Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


what 

whose 

what 


what 

whose 

what 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


which 

(whose) 
which 


which 

(whose) 

which 




Demonstrative Pronouns 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


this 
this 


these 
these 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


that 
that 
Indefinite Pronouns. 


those 
those 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


one 

one's 

one 




Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


other 

other's 

other 


others 
others' 
others 



Conjunctive Pronouns. 

The conjunctive pronouns who and which are 
inflected like the interrogatives. That, but, and as 
have no inflections. Each has but the one form. 



SECTION 166. composition. 



(For the lesson in Composition, see page 231, 
Section 35.) 



section 167. USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

(a) Thou wilt keep him in perfect peace whose mind 
is stayed on Thee. 

(b) Hail to thee, blithe spirit! 



106 GRAMMAR 

(c) Open ye the gates! 

(d) He never owned the foreign rule, 

No master he obeyed. 

(e) See the sun himself! on wings 
Of Glory up the east he springs. 

(f) Each should do his duty. 

(g) The author who speaks about his books is almost 
as bad as a mother who talks about her own chil- 
dren. 

(h) She dwelt among the untrodden ways, 

Beside the springs of Dove. 
(i) Happy is the man that findeth Wisdom. She is 

more precious than rubies; and all the things that 

thou canst desire are not to be compared unto her. 
(j) Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees. 
(k) The Mississippi is the longest river. Its source is 

in Lake Itasca. 
(1) The elephant finds many uses for its trunk. 
(m) This child is not mine as the first was; 

I cannot sing it to rest. 
(n) It blew itself out yesterday. 
(o) It will be hot tomorrow. 
(p) O, it is excellent 

To have a giant's strength; but it is tyrannous 

To use it like a giant, 
(q) Patience itself may be worn out by a constant 

chattering. 
(r) Napoleon himself found a Waterloo. 
(s) Know thyself. 
(t) Rembrandt painted himself. 
(u) Soldiers control themselves. 
(v) A boy has his troubles, and a girl has hers. 
(w) Mine seem more serious than theirs. 
(x) We must not yield to ours. 
(y) Each must conquer his. 

From what book is (a) taken ? Do you know any other 
sentences using thou or thee? Do they come from the 
same book ? (b) is the first line of a poem. Can you think 
of another line of poetry using thou or thee? 



USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS 107 

Do we use ye in common conversation ? What class of 
people use "thou" and "thee" in their daily conversa- 
tion ? 

Has the sun sex ? Why is it spoken of as he ? Should 
girls do their duty as well as boys ? Why, then, is his used 
in (f ) instead of some other pronoun ? 

Has Wisdom really any sex ? Why, then, do we find 
words in (i) indicating the female sex? In (j), why use 
her instead of its ? 

In (k), why do you find Its instead of " His " or " Her " ? 
Has an elephant sex ? Why do we use its, then ? Is it 
common to speak of a child as " it " ? 

In (n), has It an antecedent ? What will be hot to- 
morrow ? Has It an antecedent in (o) ? What is the use 
of it in (p) ? (See Section 85.) 

For what purpose is itself used in (q) ? himself in (r) ? 
What element of the sentence is thyself in (s) ? To whom 
does himself refer in (t) ? What element of the sentence is 
themselves in (u) ? 

Wliat is the regular possessive of the pronoun " she " ? 
Is " hers " a possessive ? What does hers mean in (v) ? Is 
its use that of a possessive modifier ? or an object com- 
plement ? Wliat is the subject of (w) ? What form of the 
pronoun is it ? What is the use or construction of ours in 
(x) ? Is it the objective case ? What case is his in (y) ? 
What do you think would be a good thing to say about 
these words ? 

Thou, thy, thine, and thee were once the only singu- 
lar forms of the second personal pronoun. ^te Grave 
These forms are now used only : — inflection. 

1. in addressing the Deity; 

2. in the serious language of the. Bible or of poetry; 

3. among the Quakers in common conversation. 

The plural ye is used only in the nominative case, 
and is seen only in the Bible and in poetry. Be- 
cause these words are used only in serious language, 
they are said to make the grave inflection. 



108 GRAMMAR 

You, your, and yours were once used only as 
the obiective and possessive plural of the 

Use of You. i^ 1 ^ /-(in 

second personal pronoun, gradually you 
came into common use in place of ye in the nomi- 
native plural. Then these plural forms displaced the 
old singulars : thou, thine, thee. Now both singular 
and plural of the second personal pronoun is you ; 
but the verb used with you is always in the plural 
form, whether the pronoun means one or more than 
one. We should never say, " You was " ; we should 
always say, " You were." 

The third personal pronoun is inflected for num- 
useofHe, bcr and case; and it is also inflected in 
She, and It. ^]^g singular to indicate the sex of the 
object referred to. 

He, his, or him is used when its antecedent 
names : — 

1. a person or animal of the male sex; 

2. a personified object which by reason of its size, 
strength, or fierceness is thought of as male; 

3. a person spoken of without any regard to sex, repre- 
sented by some such word as each, neither, every 
one, etc. 

She, her, or hers is used when its antecedent 
names : — 

1. a person or animal of the female sex; 

2. a personified object which by reason of its grace, 
attractiveness, delicacy, or timidity is thought of 
as female. 

It or its is used when the antecedent names : — 

1. an object without sex; 

2. an object whose sex is disregarded. 

They, their, theirs, and them are used of all objects, 



USES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS 109 

the language containing no plural pronouns to dis- 
tinguish sex. 

Note. No other pronouns have any inflection for sex. 
A few nouns in our language are inflected to indicate sex; 
as, lion, lioness; peacock, peahen; duke, duchess. The 
number of these is so small, however, that there seems no 
reason for discussing the subject of gender of nouns or 
pronouns. 

It has two special uses. This pronoun may be : — 

1. an anticipatory subject (Section 85); or, 

2. an impersonal subject. 

In such a sentence as " It rains," the word " It " has no 
meaning whatever. It is used with the verb to express 
a natural phenomenon. It seems almost to be a part of 
the verb. When used in this way, it is called an imper- 
sonal subject. 

The compound personal pronouns are used for two 
purposes. They are used : — 

1. for emphasis; and 

2. as reflexive objects. (See (n), in this section.) 

Besides the regular possessive forms, there are a 
few secondary forms that are not used as modifiers. 
Mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, and theirs use of the 
are used to mean both the possessor and lossessive 
the thing possessed. His may be used in ^°^™^ 
the same way. These secondary forms have the same 
use in a sentence as the nouns modified would 
have. For example, in (v) hers means her troubles ; 
troubles would be an object complement in the sen- 
tence ; and hers has the same construction. It is a 
possessive form in the objective case. 

SECTION 168. EXERCISE. 

Select and parse the nouns and personal pronouns 
in the following sentences. 



110 GRAMMAR 

To parse a noun or pronoun, give : — 

1. its classification; 

2. its inflection; 

3. its number; 

4. its case; 

5. its construction in the sentence. 

Model. My house is the house of prayer; but ye have 
made it a den of thieves. 

The word " My " is a first personal pronoun. It is 
inflected in the singular — nominative, I; possessive, 
my or mine; objective, me; in the plural — nominative, 
we; possessive, our or ours; objective, us. It is in the 
singular number and possessive case. It is a possessive 
modifier of "house." 

The word " house " is a common noun. It is inflected 
in the singular — nominative, and objective, house; pos- 
sessive, house's; in the plural — nominative and objective, 
houses; possessive, houses'. It is in the singular number 
and nominative case. It is the subject of the sentence. 

1. O Thou that dwellest in the heavens! behold with 
compassion Thy children on earth. 

2. Wisdom hath builded her house. 

3. When Freedom from her mountain height 
Unfurled her standard to the air. 

She tore the azure robe of night 
And set the stars of glory there. 

4. Breathes there the man, with soul so dead. 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land? 

5. I traveled among unknown men, 

In lands beyond the sea; 
Nor, England ! did I know till then 
What love I bore to thee. 

'T is past, that melancholy dream ! 

Nor will I quit thy shore 
A second time; for still I seem 

To love thee more and more. 



USES OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 111 

Among thy mountains did I feel 

The joy of my desire; 
And she I cherished turned her wheel 

Beside an EngHsh fire. 

Thy mornings showed, thy nights conceal'd 

The bowers where Lucy played; 
And thine, too, is the last green field 

That Lucy's eyes surveyed. Wordsworth. 

SECTION 169. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 231, 
Section 36.) 

SECTION 170. USES OF INTERKOGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

(a) Who hath known the mind of the Lord ? 

(b) Whose servant are you ? 

(c) Whom seek ye ? 

(d) Who is he that will plead with me ? 

(e) Of whom shall I be afraid ? 

(f) Which now of these three was neighbor unto him 
that fell among the thieves ? 

(g) Which is better, — honor or riches ? 

(h) What shall a man give in exchange for his soul ? 

(i) What is life worth ? 

(j) What have they called me? 

(k) Whether is easier, to say, Thy sins be forgiven 
thee ; or to say, Arise and walk ? 

By questions similar to those in Section 167, determine 
the uses of the interrogative pronouns in sentences (a) 
to (k). 

Who asks about persons. 

What asks about tbings. 

Which asks about either persons or things. Which 
is peculiar in this : it asks for a choice, either be- 
tween two persons or things, or among several. 

Whether was at one time used as an interroga- 



112 GRAMMAR 

tive pronoun ; but it is rarely found so used in mod- 
ern English. It always asks for a choice between 
two. 

The construction of interrogative pronouns is the 
same, whether found in direct or indirect questions. 

Which and What are many times used to modify 
nouns. These words are then interrogative adjec- 
tives, not interrogative pronouns. 

Example. Which path will he choose ? 

What commandment is greatest ? 

SECTION 171. USES OF CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

(a) And he is oft the wisest man who is not wise at all. 

(b) He prayeth best who loveth best 

All things both great and small. 

(c) Consider the little mouse, how sagacious an animal 
it is, which never intrusts its life to one hole only. 

(d) It had been snowing all day, which made our 
progress slow and tiresome. 

(e) Children are the anchors that hold a mother to life. 

(f) Wealth is not his that has it, but his that enjoys it. 

(g) Slight not what 's near through aiming at what 's 
far. 

(h) I have the same studies as you have. 
(i) Such as have pure hearts shall inherit the king- 
dom of heaven. 

(j) There is no flower but brings joy with beauty. 

(k) There never was an old man but wished to live 
tomorrow. 

(1) Any person who steals my purse steals trash. 

(m) Who steals my purse steals trash. 

(n) Anything which makes men good Christians makes 
them good citizens. 

(o) Whatever makes men good Christians makes them 
good citizens. 

(p) Whosoever hath not patience hath not wisdom. 

(q) Give him what he wishes. 



COXJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS 113 

(r) Ask him what he wishes. 
(s) Tell me what he wishes. 
(t) And 't is my faith that every flower 

Enjoys the air it breathes, 
(u) The toys I played with are dear to me. 

Tell the antecedent of each of the pronouns in sentences 
(a) to (f). Do these pronouns represent persons or things ? 
Can you name the antecedents of the pronouns in (g) ? 
Using the definition of pronoun, prove that as and but in 
sentences (h) to (k) are pronouns. Do these two pronouns 
represent persons or things ? Look through the sen- 
tences carefully, and notice where each pronoun stands in 
the clause of which the pronoun forms a part, — near the 
beginning or near the end. 

Analyze sentence (1). What one word in (m) performs 
the same use as Any person who in (1) ? This word, then, 
is the subject of the whole sentence and of the clause. 
Compare (n) and (o). Tell the two uses of Whatever. 
Tell the two uses of Whosoever in (p). 

Substitute the words anything that for what in (q). 
Give the two uses of what in (q). Can you substitute the 
same words for what in (r) ? Does it mean the same with 
the substituted words ? Does (r) mean " Ask him this, 
* What do you wish ? ' " What kind of question is what 
he wishes in (r) ? What kind of pronoun is what in the 
same sentence? In (s), is the pronoun interrogative? or 
is it conjunctive? (See Section 125.) 

In (t), what does the clause it breathes modify ? What 
is the connecting word ? Where is the connective in (u) ? 
(See Section 103.) 

The conjunctive pronoun who, whose, or whom 
is used when its antecedent names a person, or an 
object thought of as a person. 

The conjunctive pronoun which is used when the 
antecedent names things. 

The conjunctive pronoun that may be used when 
the antecedent names either persons or things. 



114 GRAMMAR 

The conjunctive pronoun what may be used when 
things are referred to. 

As, when used as a conjunctive pronoun, may re- 
fer to either persons or things. When as is a con- 
junctive pronoun, that or which can always be 
substituted for it. 

But is very rarely used as a conjunctive pronoun. 
When so used it follows a negative statement, and is 
equivalent to that not. Its antecedent may name 
either persons or things. 

A conjunctive pronoun usually stands very near 

the word it modifies. This is so that there can be 

no mistake about what the pronoun refers 

Position of .a 

Conjunctive to. Ihis placcs the coujuuctivc prououu 
at the beginning of the clause of which it 
is a part. The word that always stands first in its 
clause. 

The compound conjunctive pronouns are used to 
make an indefinite or general statement. For this 
reason they are frequently called indefi- 
Conjunctive nite Conjunctive pronouns. (What and 
•who frequently have this same use.) It is 
very unusual for these pronouns to have an ante- 
cedent. The pronoun itself is both antecedent and 
conjunctive pronoun. It has, therefore, two uses in 
the sentence. Both constructions should be given 
when parsing an indefinite conjunctive pronoun. 

What and who are interrogative as well as con- 
junctive pronouns. 

When what and who are used as indefinite conjunc- 
tives, it is sometimes very difficult to tell them from inter- 
rogatives. In general it is true that when the words, "the 
thing which" or "the person who," can be substituted for 
the pronoun and express the meaning, the pronoun is 



EXERCISE 115 

conjunctive. If the sentence demands an answer to a 
question stated in the clause introduced by the pronoun, 
the pronoun is interrogative. At times it may seem to be 
either, according to the way the sentence is viewed. (See 
sentences (q) to (s), in this section.) 

Ellipsis of a conjunctive pronoun used as the ob- 
ject of a verb or as the principal word of a preposi- 
tional phrase is frequent. It must be supplied in 
analysis. (See Section 103.) 

What and the compound conjunctive pronouns 
are often used as modifiers of nouns. In such cases 
they are not pronouns, but adjectives. (See Section 
179.) 

Example. He told what stories he knew. 

Tliink of whatsoever things are lovely. 

A conjunctive pronoun has no inflection for num- 
ber ; the sino^ular and plural are alike. Its 

1 • 1 , • I 1 , 1 1 o Inflection of 

number is determined by the number or conjunctive 
its antecedent. The number of an inde- 
finite conjunctive pronoun must be determined from 
the meaning of the sentence in which it stands. 

To parse a conjunctive pronoun, the same facts 
should be given as are given regarding personal pro- 
nouns. (See Section 168.) 

SECTION 172. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 232, 
Section 37.) 

SECTION 173. EXERCISE. 

Bring to class three sentences containing simple 
conjunctive pronouns ; three containing compound 
conjunctive pronouns ; two containing who and 
what used as indefinite conjunctive pronouns; and 
two containing who and what used as interrogative 
pronouns in indirect questions. 



116 GRAMMAR 

SECTION 174. EXERCISE. 

Analjze the following sentences. Parse the per- 
sonal, interrogative^ and conjunctive pronouns: — 

1. A friend exaggerates a man's virtues, an enemy 
inflames his crimes. 

2. Discover the opinion of your enemies, which is 
commonly the truest. 

3. Ah, who can tell how hard it is to climb 

The steep, where Fame's proud temple shines afar ? 

4. He that is not with us is against us. 

5. Whosoever is delighted in solitude is either a wild 
beast or a god. 

6. The hands which planted the lilies of France in the 
heart of the wilderness had never guided the plough- 
share or wielded a spade. 

7. The song that we hear with our ears is only the 
song that is sung in our hearts. 

8. Success is full of promise till men get it, and then it 
seems like the nest from which the bird has flown. 

9. The man who in this world can keep the whiteness 
of his soul is not likely to lose it in any other. 

10. There is no royal road to anything. One thing at a 
time, all things in succession. That which grows 
fast, withers rapidly; that which grows slowly, 
endures. 

11. Good name in man and woman, dear my lord, 
Is the immediate jewel of their souls: 

Who steals my purse steals trash ; 't is something, 
nothing ; 

'T was mine, 't is his, and has been slave to thou- 
sands; 

But he that filches from me my good name 

Robs me of that which not enriches him 

And makes me poor indeed. 

SECTION 175. USES OF DEMONSTRATIVE AND rNDETINITE 
PRONOUNS. 

(a) This is my choice of the books ; I do not like that. 

(b) Some place the bliss in action, some in ease. 



DEMONSTRATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 117 

(c) One that has newly learned to speak and go 
Loves childish plays. 

(d) None pities him that's in the snare. 

(e) None grow so old 

Not to remember where they hid their gold. 

(f) All is for the best. 

(g) All are needed by each one; 
Nothing is good or fair alone. 

(h) A little in one's own pocket is better than much in 

another's purse. 
(i) Many are called, but few are chosen. 
(j) Either of the plans seemed impracticable to the 

far-seeing Lincoln; and neither was adopted. 
(k) Not any of the numerous candidates was chosen. 
(1) Damon and Pythias loved each other. 
(m) Bear ye one another's burdens. 

What is the difference in meaning between this and 
that, these and those ? 

How many are meant by One in (c) ? by None in (d) ? 
None in (e) ? Account for the use of is in (f) and are in (g). 
What is the difference in meaning between much and 
many in (h) and (i) ? When should you use either or 
neither? and when should you use any or not any? 
Study (j) and (k). for your answers. How many persons 
are mentioned in (1) ? How many may be meant in (m) ? 
When should you use each other and when one another ? 

This and these are used to point out things near 
at hand ; while that and those are used of things 
remote in time or place or thought. 

One and any were originally closely related; but 
one is now used only of one object; while we use 
any Avhen referring to one or to several. 

Example. Any suits me. 
Any suit me. 

None, the negative of one, strictly speaking, 
should be used of but one object, but it is now 



118 GRAMMAR 

common to use none when referring to more than 
one ; and when but one is meant, to use the words 
not one. 

All, when it means everything, is singular; all, 
when it means the whole number of things, is 
plural. 

Many refers to number and is plural ; much re- 
fers to quantity and is singular. 

Either and neither are used when a choice between 
two is offered ; one and not one, any and not any, 
when the choice is among several. 

Each other is used when speaking of two ; one 
another when speaking of more than two. They 
are phrasal pronouns, and should be treated as one 
word. 

SECTION 176. EXEBCISE. 

Bring two sentences to class containing demon- 
strative pronouns, and three sentences containing 
indefinite pronouns. Also bring five sentences con- 
taining the same words used as adjectives. 

SECTION 177. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. Parse all the 
pronouns : — 

1. To those whose god is honor, disgrace alone is sin. 

2. Good manners is the art of making those people 
easy with whom we converse. 

3. Come one, come all! this rock shall fly 
From its firm base as soon as I. 

4. An idle person is like one that is dead. 

5. A man has no more right to say an uncivil thing 
than to act one; no more right to say a rude thing 
to another man than to knock him down. 

6. All that glitters is not gold. 

7. Few, few shall part where many meet. 



ADJECTIVES 119 

8. God made both tears and laughter; and both for 
kind purposes. 

9. Hitherto the two rival European nations had kept 
each other in check upon the American continent, 
and the Indians had in some measure held the bal- 
ance of power between them. 

10. Seldom shall one see in rich families that athletic 
soundness and vigor of constitution which is seen in 
cottages, Avhere Nature is cook and Necessity the 
caterer. 

SECTION 178. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 233, Sec- 
tion 38.) 

SECTION 179. ADJECTIVES. 

An adjective has already been defined as a word 
that modifies the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 

(See Section 53.) A study of the following sen- 
tences will enable you to make a classification : — 

(a) Long sentences in a short composition are like large 
rooms in a small house. 

(b) These seeds are destined to bear but little fruit. 

(c) There are no birds in last year's nest. 

(d) Soul, thou hast much goods laid up for many years. 

(e) The rich man wished to know what commandment 
is greatest. 

(f ) I have learned, in whatsoever state I am, therewith 
to be content. 

(g) Wherefore let none in any wise be reckless, but 

calmly take whatever gifts the gods provide, 
(h) Many active young men are enlisting for the war. 
(i) Athletic, enthusiastic, restless men are enlisting for 
the war. 

In the sentences above, point out the adjectives that 
denote some quality, or describe. In the same sentences 
find the adjectives that limit the meaning of the nouns by 
pointing out; by telling the number; the quantity. 



120 GRAMMAR 

In (e), is what a pronoun or an adjective ? What would 
be a good name for it ? RecaUing the classification of 
whatever and whatsoever as pronouns, what would be a 
good name for them as adjectives ? 

In (h), what word modifies men ? Does active modify 
men ? or does it modify young men ? Does Many modify 
men ? or does it modify active young men ? Can you see 
any reason why there are no commas between the adjec- 
tives ? In (i), can you see a reason why there should be 
commas between the different adjectives ? 

Adjectives are divided into two general classes: 
qualifying and limiting. 

A QUALIFYING ADJECTIVE IS ONE THAT MODIFIES THE MEANINa OP 
A NOUN OR PRONOUN BY DENOTING SOME QUALITY OR CONDITION. 

A LIMITING ADJECTIVE IS ONE THAT MODIFIES THE MEANING OF A 
NOUN OR PRONOUN BY POINTING OUT, OR BY DENOTING NUMBER OR 
QUANTITY. 

A few words commonly pronouns are at times 
adjectives. What and which may be interrogative 
adjectives io, either direct or indirect questions. 
Which and the compound conjunctive pronouns 
are at times conjunctive adjectives. (See Section 
171.) 

SECTION 180. THE ARTICIiES. 

Three words in very common use are a, an, and the. 
They are adjective modifiers; and they are generally 
called articles. 

The is the definite article. It may be used with 
both singular and plural nouns. 

A, an, is the indefinite article. It is a weakened 
form of "one." For this reason it is used only 
with singular nouns. 

At times the indefinite article retains its idea of number. 
In the sentence, "Twelve inches make a foot," "a" 
means "one." So, too, in the phrases, "in half an hour," 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 121 

"an inch thick," as well as in the negative phrase "not 
a gun," the indefinite article has a numerical meaning. 

A is used before words beginning with a conso- 
nant sound ; an is used before words beginning with 
a vowel sound. 

Some persons, however, use an before a word beginning 
with h, if the word is more than two syllables long and is 
accented on the second syllable. We say a man, an ox, 
a historical treatise or an historical treatise. 

The position of the article is before the noun, or 
before the modifiers of the noun. Only in rare in- 
stances do articles follow adjectives ; and these ad- 
jectives generally denote number or quan- Position oi 
tity ; as half the, half a, both the, all the, '^^*'^'^- 
many a, such a, what a. In such cases it is well to 
parse the adjective and the article as if they were but 
one word. 

The and a are not always articles. In the saying "the 
more the merrier," "the" is a word modifying "more" 
and "merrier." It is an adverb. So a in the "The" and 
sentence " He is going a hunting " is not an arti- always"* 
cle ; it is a remnant of an old preposition mean- Articles. 
ing "for," and should be treated as a preposition. 

SECTION 181. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 234, 
Section 39.) 

SECTION 182. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

(a) The sunset clouds are red. 

(b) Her lips are redder than a cherry. 

(c) The reddest berries are often the fruit of the palest 
flowers. 

(d) It is more blessed to give than to receive. 



122 GRAMMAR 

(e) Conceit is tlie most incurable disease known to the 

human soul, 
(f) The scenery in the Enghsh lake district is less 

severe and rugged than among the Scottish lakes; 

but is more companionable. 
(g) He is least fortimate who has no work to do. 

For what purpose do we change red to redder and red- 
dest ? How many objects are compared when we use 
redder ? At least how many are thought of when we say 
reddest ? Why do we not say blesseder ? incurablest ? If 
we Avish to say that one object has less of a quality than 
another object, can we do it by endings ? How ? Give 
examples. What part of speech are more, most, less, and 
least in the sentences above ? 

COMPARISON IS THAT MODIFICATION OF AN ADJECTIVE WHICH INDI- 
CATES THE DEGREE OF THE ATTRIBUTE. 

There are three degrees of comparison : positive, 
comparative, and superlative. 

AN ADJECTIVE IN THE POSITr^E DEGREE SIMPLY EXPRESSES THE 
ATTRIBUTE. 

AN ADJECTHTE IN THE COMPARATIVE DEGREE INDICATES THAT ONE 
OF TWO OBJECTS COMPARED POSSESSES THE ATTRIBUTE IN A HIGHER 
OR LOWER DEGREE THAN THE OTHER. 

AN ADJECTIVE IN THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE INDICATES THAT ONE 
OF THREE OR MORE OBJECTS COMPARED POSSESSES THE ATTRIBUTE 
IN THE HIGHEST OR LOWEST DEGREE. 

Adjectives are compared in two ways : comparison 

Rules for ^Y endings, and by adverbs. The endings 
Comparison, ^g^^ ^^.^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ r^^^ advcrbs joined 

with the adjective to form comparison are more and 
most ; less and least. 

Adjectives of one syllable, and adjectives of two 
syllables if the inflected forms can be easily pro- 
nounced, are inflected by endings. 

Adjectives of more than two syllables, and adjec- 
tives of two syllables that cannot be easily pro- 
nounced when inflected, are compared by using the 
adverbs more, most ; less, least. 



EXERCISE 



123 



A few adjectives have an irregular comparison. 
The principal ones are : — 

COMP.\R^VTIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

better best 



POSITIVE. 

well 

good 

bad 

Uttle 

many 

much 

late 
old 
far 
nigh 



worse 
less 

more 

j later 
I latter 
older 
elder 
farther 
further 

nigher 
former 



worst 
least 

most 

latest 

last 

oldest 

eldest 

farthest 

furthest 

Highest 

next 

foremost 

first 



Some adjectives cannot be compared, because their 
meaning will not permit it. They are : — 

most limiting adjectives ; such as, one, first, thirty, this, 
those : and 

a few adjectives denoting quality; such as, round, su- 
preme, universal. 

SECTION 183. EXERCISE. 

Compare the adjectives in the following list : — 



ugly 


apt 


aged 


aspiring 


first 


more 


red 


honest 


worst 


clear 


generous 


further 


industrious 


dense 


lazy 


tired 


high 


feeble 


heavy 


noble 


lofty 


dainty 


helpful 


flat 


hard-fisted 


covetous 


pretty 


open 


severe 


just 



SECTION 184. EXERCISE. 

Use in sensible sentences the following adjec- 



tives : 



124 GRAMMAR 

well furthest last next 

less elder latest foremost 

much late many 

SECTION 185. CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES. 

(a) The tender flowers, weary and faded, drooped 
under the burning sun. 

(b) Rich and rare were the gems she wore. 

(c) The task he undertakes 

Is numb'ring sands and drinking oceans dry. 

(d) The sun shines bright in the old Kentucky home. 

In (a), what adjectives modify flowers ? Does it make 
any difference whether they stand before or after the 
noun ? What adjectives modify sun ? What adjectives 
are there in (b) ? W^hat element of the predicate do they 
form ? Of what do they name an attribute } What word 
do they modify.^ What is dry in (c) ? (See Section 42.) 
What word does it modify.? In (d), does bright modify 
shines ? Or does the sentence mean " The bright sun 
shines " ? Or does it seem to you to partake of both ideas ? 
If it is a complement, what kind is it ? If it is simply a 
modifier, what kind is it .? If it is both, what would be 
a good name for it ? 

An adjective may be used in four constructions. 
It may be : — 

1. a direct modifier; 

2. an attribute complement; 

3. an objective complement; 

4. an adverbial attribute. 

The adverbial attribute is found after a few verbs 
denoting motion or condition. The adjective seems to 
divide in its modification between the verb and its subject. 
It modifies both. 

SECTION 186. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the 
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. 



CONSTRUCTION OF AD.TECTIVES 125 

To parse an adjective, give : — 

1. its classification; 

2. its comparison, if it is compared; 

3. its construction, with the word it modifies. 

Model. "The" is a definite article. It modifies 
"flowers." 

"Tender" is a qualifying adjective. It is compared: 
tender, tenderer, tenderest. It is a modifier of "flowers." 

" Rich " is a qualifying adjective. It is compared : rich, 
richer, richest. It is used as an attribute complement, 
and names an attribute of "gems." 

" Dry" is a qualifying adjective. It is compared: dry, 
drier, driest. It is used as an objective complement, and 
names an attribute of "oceans." 

"Bright" is a qualifying adjective. It is compared: 
bright, brighter, brightest. It is here an adverbial attri- 
bute, and modifies both the noun " sun " and the verb 
"shines." 

1. One swallow does not make a summer. 

2. Half a loaf is better than no bread. 

3. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! 

4. The cattle upon a thousand hills are the Lord's. 

5. It is only the first step which costs. 

6. Thy grandsire loved thee well; 

Many a time he danced thee on his knee. 

7. And he that does one fault at first, 
And lies to hide it, makes it two. 

8. But an old age, serene and bright, 
And lovely as a Lapland night, 

Shall lead thee to thy grave. 

9. Reeds and willows bordered the stream; and cattle 
and gray venerable horses came and hung their mild 
heads over the embankment. 

10. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. 

11. What a piece of work is man! 

12. The summer's flower is to the summer sweet. 

13. Far, vague, and dim 
The mountains swim. 



126 GRAMMAR 

14. There was not a sound audible but that of the 
sheep-bells in some meadows by the river, and the creak- 
ing of a cart down the long road that descends the hill. 

15. What a noble gift to man are the forests! What a 
debt of gratitude and admiration Ave owe to their utility 
and their beauty! 

How pleasantly the shadows of the w^ood fall upon our 
heads when we turn from the glitter and turmoil of the 
world of man ! The winds of heaven seem to linger amid 
their balmy branches, and the sunshine falls like a bless- 
ing upon the green leaves; the wild breath of the forest, 
fragrant with bark and berry, fans the brow with grateful 
freshness; and the beautiful woodlight, neither garish 
nor gloomy, full of calm and peaceful influences, sheds 
repose over the spirit 

SECTION 187. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 234, Sec- 
tion 40.) 

SECTION 188. VERBS. 

A VERB IS A WORD THAT ASSERTS. (See Section 26.) 

A COPULATIVE VERB IS ONE WHOSE PRINCIPAL USE IS THAT OF A 
COPULA. 

AN ATTRIBUTIVE VERB IS ONE THAT CONTAINS IN ITSELF A PREDI- 
CATE ATTRIBUTE. 

A TRANSITIVE VERB IS ONE THAT ASSERTS AN ACTION RECEIVED 
BY SOME OBJECT. (See Section 37.) 

AN INTRANSITIVE VERB IS ONE THAT DOES NOT ASSERT AN ACTION 
RECEIVED BY AN OBJECT. 

(a) The sun cheers the whole world. 

(b) The whole world is cheered by the sun. 

(c) A small force held Fort Sumter.' 

(d) Fort Sumter was held by a small force. 

(e) Birds build wonderful nests. 

(f) Wonderful nests are built by birds. 

In each pair of sentences the same thought is expressed. 
In which does the subject name the doer of the action ? 
In which does the subject name the receiver of the action } 



VERBS 127 

When the subject names the receiver of the action, how is 
the doer of the action expressed ? 

VOICE IS THAT MODIFICATION OF A VERB WHICH INDICATES 
WHETHER THE SUBJECT NAMES THE DOER OR THE RECEIVER OF THE 
ACTION ASSERTED. 

A VERB IS IN THE ACTIVE VOICE WHEN THE SUBJECT NAMES THE 
DOER OF THE ACTION ASSERTED. 

A VERB IS IN THE PASSIVE VOICE WHEN THE SUBJECT NAMES THE 
RECEIVER OF THE ACTION ASSERTED. 

The passive voice is a convenience in 
language, because it enables a writer to ex- Passive 
press his thought : — 

1. when the name of the actor is unknown; 
Example. The Maine was destroyed in Havana 

harbor. 

2. when the name of the actor is of Uttle importance; 
Example. The laws have been enforced. 

3. when the speaker prefers not to name the actor. 
Example. A pencil has been taken from my desk. 

(a) A wise man governs his temper. Active to 

(b) His temper is governed by a wise man. Passive. 

(c) A just man gives all their due. 

(d) Their due is given to all by a just man. 

(e) All are given their due by a just man. 

(f) Suffering makes us men. 

(g) We are made men by suffering, 
(h) Men are made of us by suffering. 

Analyze sentences (a), (c), and (f). Pick out the sen- 
tences in which an object complement in the active con- 
struction becomes the subject in the passive construction. 
In which sentence has the indirect object of the active 
become the subject of the passive construction ? In which 
has the objective complement of the active become the 
subject of the passive construction ? 

An active construction may be changed to a pass- 
ive construction in three ways ; — 



128 GRAMMAR 

1. The object complement of the active may become the 
subject in the passive. 

If, in a predicate of the fourth type (see Section 42), the 
object complement of the active (us in f) becomes the 
subject in the passive (We in g), the objective comple- 
ment (men in f) becomes the attribute complement (men 
in g) and the passive verb serves as the copula. This is 
the only construction in which a transitive verb-phrase 
has a copulative use ; and it is called a passive-copulative 
verb-phrase. 

2. The indirect object of the active may become the 
subject in the passive. 

By an idiom of our language, the object complement 
of the active (due in c) remains in the objective case in the 
passive (due in e), and is called a retained object. 

3. Very rarely the objective complement of the active 
becomes the subject in the passive. 

In such passive constructions, both the receiver and the 
doer of the action are named by principal words of prepo- 
sitional phrases; asin(h). This construction is awkward 
and is seldom used by good writers. 

SECTION 189. EXERCISE. 

Write five sentences containing copulative verbs, 
and five containing attributive verbs. Can an attrib- 
utive verb be transitive ? If so, give three examples 
in sentences. Can a transitive verb ever be copula- 
tive ? If so, give two examples. 

SECTION 190. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 235, 
Section 41.) 

SECTION 191. EXERCISE. 

Make six columns on your papers headed copula- 
tive, attributive, transitive, intransitive, verb, verb- 
phrase. At the left of these columns make a list of 
the verbs and verb-phrases in the following sen- 



INFLECTION OF VERBS 129 

tences. Place opposite each verb and verb-phrase a 
dash in the columns naming the classes to which it 
belongs. 

MODEL 
COP. ATTRIB. TRANS. INTR. \^RB. VERB-PHRASE. 

proclaimed 

was proclaimed 

1. The people proclaimed Caesar emperor. 

2. Caesar was proclaimed emperor by the people. 

3. The pot called the kettle black. 

4. Men do not become rich by what they get, but by 
what they keep. 

5. He who spends more than his wages will always be 
a beggar, and so will his family after him. 

6. Whenever the snow lies long and deep upon the 
ground, a flock of cedar-birds comes in mid-winter 
to eat the berries on my hawthorns. 

7. I love old ways J and the path I was walking felt 
kindly to the feet it had known for almost fifty years. 

8. Corn-fields and vineyards grow now in deep hol- 
lows, which are very visibly volcanic craters whose 
lips were closed long before those of history were 
opened. 

SECTION 192. EXERCISE. 

Classify, as in the preceding lesson, all the verbs 
and verb-phrases in the letter by Phillips Brooks, 
printed on pages 199 and 200. Tell whether each 
verb and verb-phrase is in the active or passive voice. 

SECTION 193. ESTFLECTION OF VERBS. 

(a) Jocund day 

Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-tops. 

(b) I stood in Venice on the Bridge of Sighs. 

(c) Sweet mercy is nobility's true badge. 

(d) Her voice was ever soft, 

Gentle, and low, — an excellent thing in woman. 

(e) He is a true man; and he defends the weak. 



130 GRAMMAR 

(f) If he be a true man, he will defend the weak. 

(g) If he were a true man, he would defend the weak, 
(h) I am no girl, to be made pale with words. 

(i) Thou art proved, I know, and I am young. 

(j) For we are all, like swimmers on the sea, 
Poised on the top of a huge wave of fate. 

(k) But Sohrab look'd upon the horse and said: — 
" Is this, then, Ruksh ? How often, in past days, 
My mother told me of thee, thou brave steed, 
My terrible father's terrible horse!" 

In (a) and (b), is the attribute asserted by the verbs 
stands and stood the same ? What attribute is it ? If the 
attribute is the same, why is not the same word used ? In 
(c), is is a copula, joining subject and predicate attribute; 
and in (d), was is the copula, joining subject and predi- 
cate attribute. Why is not the same word used in both 
sentences ? In (e), (f), and (g), the subjects and predi- 
cate attributes are the same, he and man ; but the verb is 
changed. Why ? 

What is the subject of am in (h) ? of art in (i) ? of are 
in (j) ? of is in (k) ? Are these verbs really different forms 
of one verb ? Why are the changes in form made ? 

For what three purposes are verbs changed in form ? 

Verbs are words that assert. However, a verb 

does more than assert an attribute of the subject; 

it tells the time when the assertion is true. 

And to tell the time there are changes 

in the form of the verb. 

Moreover, a verb can indicate that the relation 

between subject and attribute is a fact, is doubtful, 

or even that it is contrary to fact. And 

this, too, may be done by a change in the 

form of the verb. 

And third, the form of the verb may be changed 
Number and ^^ indicate a change in the number of the 
Person. subjcct. If a personal pronoun is the sub- 

ject, the form may be changed to indicate the per- 



EXERCISE 131 

son of the pronoun used and also its number. The 
form of a verb may be changed to agree with its 
subject in person and number. 

The chanoes in the form of a verb make its in- 

o 

flection. A verb is inflected to indicate the time of 
the assertion, the manner of the assertion, and the 
number and person of its subject. 

The inflection of a verb is called conjugation. 

SECTION 194. EXERCISE. 

Fill the blanks with forms of the verb run to de- 
note the present time : — 

I We 

You You 



He, she, it, the boy They, the boys — ■ 

Fill the blanks below with forms of the verb run 
to denote that the action took place in past time : — 

I We 

You You 



He, she, it, the girl They, the girls 



How many forms of the verb run denote present time ? 
Which is the common form ? In how many places do you 
find the other form ? Its subject is always what person 
and number ? (See Section 219, 1.) With what letter does 
this verb-form end ? 

How many forms do you find to denote past time ? 
How many forms are there altogether of this verb ? 

Can you think of any other forms of the verb run ? 

Fill the blanks with the forms of the verb be 
which denote present time. Do the same to denote 
past time : — 

I We 

You You 



He, she, it They 

The dog The dogs 



132 GRAMMAR 



I We 

You You 

He, she, it They 

The cloud The clouds 

How many forms of the verb be are used to denote 
present time ? to denote past time ? 

SECTION 195. C03MP0SITI0N. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 235, Sec- 
tion 42.) 

SECTION 196. VERBS AND VERB-PHRASES. 

Of all verbs except be there are three forms.^ 
Two of these are used to denote present time, and 
one to denote past time. Of the two forms used to 
denote present time, one is the common, or simple 
form of the verb ; the other is usually called the 
third-person singular form, or the s-form of the 
verb. 

There are, however, many more than three ideas 
to be expressed. To do this the English language 
has made use of many verb-phrases. 

(a) This is Washington's birthday. 

(b) Tomorrow will be Washington's birthday. 

(c) It has been a holiday for many years. 

(d) The smallest worm will turn, being trodden upon. 

(e) Man has always wished to add something to God's 
work. 

(f) The sun had set in purple glory. 

(g) At the end of April the deep snowbanks will have 
disappeared, and the first stray crocuses will have 
been found by the children. 

(h) A little fire is quickly trodden out. 
(i) To keep him from doing harm, he was kept from 
doing anything. 

1 The grave forms ending- in est and eth are not considered in this 
statement. 



VERBS AND VERB-PHRASES 133 

(j) The stars will be darkened. 

(k) When soldiers have been baptized in the fire of 
battle, they have all one rank in my eyes. 

Analyze sentences (a), (b), and (c). Are the verbs or 
verb-phrases copulative or attributive ? What word 
names the predicate attribute ? In sentences (d) to (k), 
are the verb-phrases copulative or attributive ? In an 
attributive verb-phrase, which word names the attribute ? 
What purpose do the other words of a verb-phrase serve ? 

What form of the verb is be in (b) ? (See Section 132.) 
been in (c) ? (See Section 129.) turn in (d) ? wished in 
(e) ? The other words of the phrase help this word to 
express changes in voice, tense, mood, person, and num- 
ber. They are called auxiliary verbs.^ 

A VERB-PHRASE IS A GROUP OF WORDS THAT ASSERTS. 

A verb-phrase has for its last word a verbal, — 
either an infinitive or a participle, — and from one 
to three auxiliary verbs to express changes in its 



AN AUXILIARY VERB IS ONE THAT IS USED WITH A VERBAL TO 
FORM A VERB-PHRASE. 

The principal auxiliary verbs are the forms of be, 
have, do, shall, will, and may. ^ As these words are 
used so often, it is necessary that their inflections be 
known. They are : — 









BE. 










PRESENT 








PAST. 




PERSON 


. SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


PERSON, 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


1. 


I am 


We are 




1. 


I was 


We were 


2. 


You are 


You are 




2. 


You were 


You were 


3. 


He ) 

She \ is 
It 


They are 




3. 


He) 
She ) was 
It 


They were 



1 For the meaning of auxiliary, consult a dictionary. Is the word well 
selected to describe this class of verbs ? 

2 Many grammarians consider can, must, ought, and let, as auxili- 
ary verbs. For the treatment of these verbs, see Section 230. 



134 GRAMMAR 

' HAVE. 

1. I have We have 1. I had We had 

2. You have You have 2. You had You had 

3. He ) They have 3. He ) They had 
She } has She [ had 

^* ^ no ^* ^ 

DO. 

1. I do We do 1. I did We did 

2. You do You do 2. You did You did 

3. He does They do 3. He did They did 

SHALL. 

PEESENT. PAST. 

There is but one form for all persons, shall should 

WILL. 

There is but one form for all persons, will would 

MAT. 

There is but one form for all persons, may might 

SECTION 197. EXERCISE. 

In the following paragraph select the verbs and 
verb-phrases and classify them. In verb-phrases tell 
which word names the attribute and which words 
are auxiliary verbs. 

Day dawned at length after the feverish night, and the 
admiral prepared for the assault. Within the fortress 
reigned a deathlike stillness, which inspired a sickening 
suspicion. Had the city, indeed, been carried in the night; 
had the massacre already commenced ; had all this labor 
and audacity been expended in vain ? Suddenly a man 
was descried wading breast-high through the water from 
Lammen toward the fleet, while, at the same time, one 
solitary boy was seen to wave his cap from the summit of 
the fort. After a moment of doubt the happy mystery was 
solved. The Spaniards had fled, panic-stricken, during 
the darkness. Their position would still have enabled 
them, with firmness, to frustrate the enterprise of the 
patriots; but the hand of God, which had sent the ocean 



TENSE 135 

and the tempest to the dehverance of Leyden, had struck 
her enemies with terror hkewise. 

Motley, from The Rise of the Dutch Republic. 

SECTION 198. TENSE. 

(a) The winter season is joyful. 

(b) The winter season was joyful. 

(c) The winter season will be joyful. 

Analyze sentences (a), (b), and (c). What elements of 
these sentences remain unchanged ? What element has 
been changed ? For what purpose has it been changed f 

A copulative verb may be changed to show the 
time when the predicate attribute is asserted of the 
subject. 

(a) The daisies peep from ev'ry field. 

(b) The daisies peeped from ev'ry field. 

(c) The daisies will peep from ev'ry field. 

Analyze these sentences. Is the subject unchanged ? Is 
the same attribute asserted of daisies in each of the sen- 
tences ? What is the attribute asserted ? For what pur- 
pose do we have the three forms, peep, peeped, and will 
peep ? 

An attributive verb may be changed to show the 
time when the predicate attribute is asserted of the 
subject. 

This change, or modification, of a verb to indi- 
cate the time when the predicate attribute is asserted 
of the subject is called tense. 

Corresponding to the three divisions of time there 
are three tenses : the present tense, the past tense, 
and the future tense. 

THE PRESENT TENSE SHOWS THAT THE PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE IS 
ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT AT THE PRESENT TIME. 

THE PAST TENSE SHOWS THAT THE PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE IS AS- 
SERTED OF THE SUBJECT AT SOME PAST TIME. 

THE FUTURE TENSE SHOWS THAT THE PREDICATE ATTRIBUTE IS 
ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT AT SOME FUTURE TIME. 



136 GRAMMAR 

(a) Now the bluebird comes. 

(b) Now the bluebird has come. 

(c) Yesterday the bluebird came. 

(d) Yesterday the bluebird had come, 

(e) Tomorrow the bluebird will come. 

(f) Tomorrow the bluebird will have come. 

What does the word Now indicate in both (a) and (b) ? 
The time is the same in both, then; and it is present. 
What does (b) tell that is different from what is told in 
(a) ? Answer similar questions about sentences (c) and 
(d); about (e) and (f). 

Any verb may be changed to indicate that the 
attribute asserted of the subject has been completed, 
or will be completed. 

THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE SHOWS THAT THE PREDICATE ATTRI- 
BUTE IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT AS COMPLETED AT THE PRESENT 
TIME. 

THE PAST PERFECT TENSE SHOWS THAT THE PREDICATE ATTRI- 
BUTE IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT AS COMPLETED AT SOME PAST 
TIME. 

THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE SHOWS THAT THE PREDICATE ATTRI- 
BUTE IS ASSERTED OF THE SUBJECT AS TO BE COMPLETED AT SOME 
FUTURE TIME. 

SECTION 199. EXERCISE. 

In one column write six sentences containing the 
six tenses of the verb invent in the active voice. In 
another column write six sentences containing the 
six tenses of the verb invent in the passive voice. 

Looking at the verb-phrases in the two lists of sentences 
what auxiliary is used in the future in both active and 
passive.'' What auxiliary is used in the present perfect 
in both active and passive ? in the past perfect ? What 
words are used in the future perfect ? These words which 
are always used to indicate the tenses of verbs are often 
called the signs of their respective tenses. 

What is the sign of the future ? the present perfect ? 
the past perfect ? the future perfect ? 



PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES 137 

SECTION 200. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 237, 
Section 43.) 

SECTION 201. EXERCISE. 

Make six sentences by joining tlie following sub- 
ject and predicate attribute by the six tenses of the 
verb be. 

In union strength. 

Compare this list of sentences with the list called 
for in Section 199. 

Do you see any relation between these forms of the verb 
be and the auxiharies of the passive voice ? Can you make 
a rule for forming the passive voice ? 

Write out in the six tenses the passive forms of 
discover ; of defeat ; of ruin. Use some form of the 
third personal pronoun as the subject. 

SECTION 202. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the sentences in the paragraph quoted 
from Longfellow, on page 227. Do not take the 
time to analyze the phrases, unless there is something 
peculiar about them. Classify the verbs and verb- 
phrases as copulative or attributive, transitive or 
intransitive. Give the voice and tense of each. 

SECTION 203. PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES. 

Insert two or more auxiliary verbs in each of the 
blanks below to make complete verb-phrases with 
doing. Each of the completed verb-phrases should 
indicate progressive action. 

Such a verb-phrase is called a progressive verb- 
phrase. 



138 GRAMMAR 

Present He is 

Past He was 

Future He I doing his 

Present Perfect He | duty. 

Past Perfect He 

Future Perfect He 

What part of the verb-phrase is unchanged in all these 
sentences ? What part is changed ? What difference is 
there between these verb-phrases and passive verb- 
phrases ? 

Doing denotes present time; and is called a present 
participle. Invented denotes past time; and is called a 
past participle. 

Now tell how to form passive verb-phrases; progressive 
verb-phrases. 

Give the progressive verb-phrases used in the six 
tenses of the verb go; wander. 

USES OF PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES. 

( He writes. ( He is writing. 

(a) < He will write. (b) < He will be writing. 

( He had written. ( He had been writing. 

( He writes not. ( He is not writing. 

(c) < He wrote not. (d) I He was not writing. 

( He will not write. ( He will not be writing. 

( Writes he ? ( Is he writing ? 

(e) < Wrote he ? (f ) < Was he writing ? 

( Will he write ? ( Will he be writing? 

What is the difference in meaning between the sentences 
in group (a) and group (b) ? For what purpose are pro- 
gressive verb-phrases used in (b) ? 

Is it common to see sentences like those in (c) ? in (d) ? 
In what tenses do we employ this form of negative state- 
ments ? Try all the tenses. 

In what tenses is it necessary to use progressive phrases 
to ask questions ? Try all tenses. 



EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES 139 

A PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASE IS ONE THAT DENOTES THAT THE 
ACTION IS CONTINUINQ AT THE TIME INDICATED B7 THE VERB- 
PHRASE. 

A progressive verb-phrase is formed by using* the 
present participle and the tenses of the verb be. It 
is found in all tenses in the active, and in the present 
and past tenses of the passive voice. 

Progressive verb-phrases are used : — 

1. in declarative sentences to indicate the continuance 
of the action; 

2. in the present and past tenses of negative statements ; 
S. in the present and past tenses of interrogative sen- 
tences. 

SECTION 204. EXERCISE. 

Give three examples of each use of progressive 
verb-phrases. 

SECTION 205. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 238, 
Section 44.) 

SECTION 206. EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES. 

(a) Henry tells the truth. 

(b) Henry does tell the truth. 

(c) Arnold betrayed his country. 

(d) Arnold did betray his country. 

(e) Did Gutenberg invent the printing-press ? 

(f) He did. 

(g) Gutenberg did not print a daily newspaper. 

Study these sentences as you did those in Section 203. 
How are emphatic verb-phrases formed ? In what tenses 
are they used ? For what purpose ? 

The emphatic verb-phrase is formed by combining 
the infinitive form of a verb with the Formation 

verbs do, does, and did. It is used in Emphatic 

but two tenses, the present and the past. Phrases. 



140 GRAMMAR 

The principal uses of the emphatic verb-phrases 
are: — 

1. to make an emphatic assertion; 

2. to ask questions about the assertion made by the 
verb; 

Other questions are asked by interrogative words; as, 
Who invented the printing-press ? or, When was it ? 

3. to form negative statements. 

4. The forms of the verb " do " are often used as sub- 
stitutes for definite attributive verbs, when the mean- 
ing is clear from the context. In such cases these 
forms seem to stand for the complete predicate, and 
not for the verb alone. (See (f) above.) 

SECTION 207. CONJUGATIONS OF A VERB. 

A CONJUGATION OF A VERB IS THE ORDERLY ARRANGEMENT OF ITS 
FORMS. 

The complete conjugation of a verb includes all its 
forms. There are several partial conjugations, each 
of which includes certain special forms of the verb. 
They are : — 

1st, the ordinary conjugation ; as, he learns, he 

learned, he will learn, etc. 
2d, the interrogative conjugation in two forms ; 

as, is he learning ? does he learn ? etc. 
3d, the progressive conjugation ; as he is learn- 
ing, he was learning, etc. 
4th, the emphatic conjugation ; as, he does learn, 

he did learn. 
5th, the negative conjugation in two forms; as, 
he is not learning, he does not learn, etc. 

SECTION 208. EXERCISE. 

Fill the blanks wath the ordinary conjugation of 
the verb run, carrying it through the six tenses.^ 

1 Give only those forms of the verb which are used to assert, deny, or 
question something. 



MODE 141 



SrNGHLAK. PLURAL. 

I We 



You You 

He They 

Give the negative conjugation of the verb recite, 
in the six tenses. How are the present and past 
tenses formed ? 

Give the emphatic conjugation of tlie verb slide. 
How many tenses shall you give ? 

Give the interrogative conjugation of the verb 
hurt. How many tenses can you give ? Can it be 
conjugated in the passive voice? If so, give it. 

SECTION 209. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 240, Sec- 
tion 45.) 

SECTION 210. MODE. 

So far in the study of verbs we have considered 
only those forms used in treating facts. Now we 
come to a few forms found in sentences making 
doubtful statements, statements contrary to fact, or 
statements of things only thought of. 

(a) The Lord is gracious, (b) The Lord be gracious. 

(c) The fates are favor- (d) The fates be favorable. 

able. 

(e) I was young. (f) Oh, that I were young! 

(g) Thou wast young. (h) Oh, that thou wert young ! 

(i) He was young. (j) Oh, that he were young! 
(k) My father was young. (1) Oh, that my father v/ere 

young! 

(m) We were young. (n) Oh, that we were young! 

(o) You were young. (p) Oh, that you were young! 

(q) They were young. (r) Oh, that they were young! 

(s) The king lives long. (t) Long live the king, 

(u) The people live long, (v) Long live the people. 

In one column the sentences assert facts; in the other 
they state things as only thought of or wished for. In 



'142 GRAMMAR 

what number is the subject when the verbs in a pair of sen- 
tences differ? 

(w) The woodman spares (y) Woodman, spare that 

that tree. tree. 

(x) You spare that tree. 

What kind of sentence is (y) ? Is Woodman the subject 
of (y) ? (See Section 90.) If you (understood) is the sub- 
ject of the verb in (y), is there any change of form to 
express a command ? 

From these sentences we learn that there are three 
ways in which an attribute is related to a subject, — 
as a fact, as a thing thought of, and as a command. 

MODE IS THE CHANGE IN THE FORM OF A VERB TO DENOTE CHANGES 
IN THE MANNER OF THE ASSERTION. 

THE INDICATIVE MODE COMPRISES THOSE FORMS OF A VERB THAT 
ARE USUALLY EMPLOYED IN ASSERTING A FACT. 

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE COMPRISES THOSE FORMS OF A VERB THAT 
ARE EMPLOYED IN ASSERTING SOMETHING AS MERELY THOUGHT OF 

THE IMPERATIVE MODE COMPRISES THOSE FORMS OF A VERB USED 
IN EXPRESSING A COMMAND OR AN ENTREATY. ^ 

The subjunctive mode has almost disappeared 
from the English language. Wherever the 
anceofthe thought cau be couvcycd without the use 
of the subjunctive mode, that mode has 
been dropped. We now have but two common sub- 
junctive forms of the verb be ; they are be, and 
were. 

Of other verbs there is left but one subjunctive 
form : the common form is used instead of the 
s-form in the third person, singular, present. 

SECTION 211. MODE IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 

(a) If he be young, he will make the most of his time. 

(b) If he were young again, he would make the most of 
his time. 

(c) If he live long, he will make a fine record. 

^ Strictly speaking-, there is no imperative mode. The same form of the 
verb is used to express a command as to express a fact. Its characteristic 
is that it has no expressed subject. However, imperative has been con- 
sidered a mode so long that it is given here with the others. 



MODE IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 143 

These are conditional sentences. They are com- 
posed of two parts : a condition stated by the clause 
introduced by if ; and a conclusion. 

What mode is used in these three conditions ? Is the 
condition possible in (a) ? in (b) ? in (c) ? 

(d) If he should go now, he would save time. 

In (d), is the condition a fact ? or is it something 
merely thought of ? Is it possible ? Does this form of sen- 
tence seem common to you for the expression of condi- 
tion ? Is a sentence like (d) more often seen than one 
like (a) ? 

(e) I know the poem now, and I will recite it. 

(f) If I knew the poem now, I should recite it. 

(g) I did not know the poem yesterday, and I did not 
recite it. 

(h) If I had known the poem yesterday, I should have 
recited it. 

What is the time denoted in (e) ? In (f), what adverb 
tells you that the present time is denoted "^ Although the 
present time is meant in (f), the verb knew is of the past 
tense form. Is the condition in (f) possible ? or is it con- 
trary to fact ? Then in (f), a past tense is used to denote 
a present condition contrary to fact. Does this seem a 
change of form to indicate a change of relation between 
subject and predicate attribute ? It is in the subjunctive 
mode. 

From the adverb in (g) and (h), do you gather that the 
time is the same ? What time ? What tense is had known ? 
did know? Is the condition in (h) contrary to fact ? Then 
the past perfect tense may be used to express a past condi- 
tion contrary to fact. Does this seem to you a change of 
form to indicate a change in the manner of the assertion ? 
Had known in (h) is in the subjunctive mode. 

Read the conclusions of the sentences. Notice that the 
verb-phrases in some are indicative, and in others sub- 
junctive. When the condition is possible, is the conclusion 
possible .^ If the condition is contrary to fact, is the con- 
clusion impossible ? 



144 GRAMMAR 

What tense is the verb be in (a) ? Is present time meant 
by it, or future time ? What tense is live in (c) ? Is present 
time denoted ? What tense is were in (b) ? Is past time 
ever denoted by the subjunctive mode of a verb ? Look 
through the verb-phrases and determine whether time is 
definitely denoted by verbs or verb-phrases in the sub- 
junctive. 

From this study we conclude : — 

1. that the subjunctive mode may be used to denote a 
condition possible or contrary to fact; 

2. that a possible condition may be denoted by the 
present subjunctive of the verb, or a subjunctive 
verb-phrase with should; 

3. that a present condition contrary to fact is denoted 
by the past subjunctive ; as in (f ) ; 

4. that a past condition contrary to fact is denoted by 
the past perfect subjunctive; as in (h); 

5. that when the condition is possible, the verb in the 
conclusion may be either indicative or subjunctive; 
and when the condition is contrary to fact, the verb 
in the conclusion is usually subjunctive ; 

6. that time is not definitely indicated by the subjunc- 
tive mode. 

SECTION 212. INDICATIVE IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 

(i) If it is raining (and you say it is), I shall not go, 

(j) If he is young, I have been mistaken. 

(k) If he is young, he will succeed. 

(1) If he knows the poem, he will recite it. 

In (i), the condition is a statement of fact. In (j), the 

condition is assumed to be a fact. Is the condition in (k) 

a fact ? Is it a possibility ? Is the condition in (1) a fact or 

a possibility ? What mode is used in all these sentences ? 

The indicative mode is very common in condi- 
tional clauses. It is always used when the condition 
is a fact, or assumed to be a fact ; and it is very 
generally used when the condition is possible. 



USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 145 

Now summing up modes in conditional clauses : — 

1. When the condition is a fact, the indicative is always 
used; 

2. When the condition is a possibility, the 
indicative or subjunctive may be used; 

but the indicative is by far the more common ; 

3. When the condition is contrary to fact, the subjimc- 
tive is always used. 

(a) Were he young, he would yet accomphsh inversion to 

much. p®^?M^ 

(b) Should he be young, he would not waste 
his time. 

(c) Had he been young, he would have succeeded. 

What kind of clauses are these ? How, then, can a con- 
dition be expressed ? These verbs are in the subjunctive, 
the same as if they had been introduced by the conjunc- 
tion if. Condition is indicated by an inversion of the sub- 
ject and verb or a part of the verb-phrase. 

SECTION 213. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 240, 
Section 46.) 

SECTION 214. OTHER USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 

(a) Though he is young, he will succeed. 

(b) Though he be young, he will succeed. 

(c) Though he were young now, he would concessive 

not succeed. Clauses. 

(d) Though he had been young, he would not have 
succeeded. 

(e) Although he live to be a hundred years, he cannot 

wipe away the stain of sin. 

Study these clauses by asking yourselves ques- 
tions similar to those on Conditional Sentences in 
Sections 211 and 212. 

In the use of modes, concessive clauses resemble 



146 GRAMMAR 

conditional clauses. If the concession is a fact, the 
indicative is used ; if the concession is a possibility, 
the indicative or subjunctive may be used, the in- 
dicative being more common ; if the concession is 
present and contrary to fact, the past subjunctive is 
used ; if the concession is past and contrary to fact, 
the past perfect subjunctive is used. 

(f) Judge not that ye be not judged. 

(g) Judge not that ye may not be judged. 
Purpose (h) Bring it to me that I may eat. 

Clauses. (J) g}ie ^^[\[ bring it to him that he may eat. 

(j) She brought it to him that he might eat. 
(k) She had brought it to him that he might 

eat. 
(1) He labors lest he starve. 

Purpose clauses are generally introduced by that, 
in order that, so that, and lest. They denote the 
purpose of the action of the main verb. Purpose is 
expressed by the subjunctive of a verb or a verb- 
phrase. May and might are the auxiliaries used in 
verb-phrases denoting purpose. 

The present tense of the verb or verb-phrase is 
used in purpose clauses when the main verb denotes 
present or future time. The past tense of the verb- 
phrase is used when the main verb denotes past 
time. 

A Wish ("^) ^^^^ ^^^® *^^ ^'"^S- 

(n) May the king live long. 

What mode is the verb in (m) ? (See Section 210.) 

Does the verb-phrase in (n) mean the same ? Does either 

state a fact ? Do both assert a thing thought of ? 

A wish is expressed by the use of the subjunctive 
form of the verb or of the verb-phrase. May is the 
auxiliary employed in verb-phrases to denote a wish. 



SUMMARY OF USES OF SUBJUNCTIVE 147 

(o) I wish that I were king. 

(p) It is best that he should live out-of-doors. 

(q) 'T were best he speak no harm of Brutus here. 

What is the object complement of wish in (o) ? 
What is the real subject in (p) ? in (q) ? In jfoun 

these three noun clauses what mode is found ? Clauses. 

Verbs and verb-phrases in the subjunctive are 
sometimes found in noun clauses, when the clauses 
are used either as subject or object. 

(r) Come ere it be too late. 
(s) They shall pursue him until he perish. 
(t) This night before the cock crow, thou shalt deny 
me thrice. 

What do the clauses in these sentences express ? What 
mode is found in each ? Could you use the Time 

indicative in each ? Clauses. 

The subjunctive mode may be used in time clauses 
after ere, before, and until ; very rarely after other 
conjunctive adverbs. 

SECTION 215. SUMMARY OF FORMS AND USES OF 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 

There are but three subjunctive forms of the 
simple verb seen in modern English ; and of these 
but one, were, is heard in common conversation. 

The subjunctive forms are : — 

1. be; 

2. were; 

3. the common form of the verb when used with a 
singular subject. 

In addition to these simple verbs, there are a few 
verb-phrases used in the subjunctive. They are : — 

1. verb-phrases with would and should, principally in 
conditions and concessions; 



148 , GRAMMAR 

2. verb-phrases with may and might, in purpose clauses 
and sentences denoting a wish ; 

3. the past tense of any verb, when used to denote an 
impossible present condition or concession; 

4. the past perfect tense of any verb, when used to 
denote an impossible past condition or concession. 

Would, should, may, might, and had are not 
always parts of subjunctive verb-phrases. They are 
at times full verbs. (See Sections 225 and 228 for 
these verbs.) 

The subjunctive forms may be found in : — 

1. simple sentences to denote a wish; 

2. adverbial clauses denoting 

(a) condition, 

(b) concession, 

(c) purpose, 

(d) time; and in 

3. noim clauses. 

SECTION 216. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the sentences. Classify the verbs, and 
give the voice, tense, and mode of each : — 

1. God save the king. 

2. Come! be we bold! 

3. Where is the place of understanding ? 

4. Oh, that I had the wings of a dove. 

5. Charge for the guns. 

6. He wishes to go home. 

7. I'll fight, till from my bones the flesh be hack'd. 

8. If you have great talents, industry will improve 
them; if you have but moderate abilities, industry 
will supply their deficiencies. 

9. Over Barbara Frietchie's grave, 
Flag of Freedom and Union, wave! 

10. Because right is right, to follow right 
Were wisdom in the scorn of consequence. 

11. Though he slay me, yet will I praise him. 



EXERCISE 149 

12. Speak in such a manner between two enemies, that, 
should they afterwards become friends, you may not 
be put to the blush. 

13. Shall I give up the friend I have valued and tried, 
If he kneel not before the same altar with me ? 

14. If there is anything that will endure 
The eye of God, because it still is pure. 
It is the spirit of a little child. 

15. If there be a human tear 

From Passion's dross refin'd and clear, 
'T is that which pious fathers shed 
Upon a duteous daughter's head. 

16. Our Fathers' God, to Thee, 
Author of liberty, 

To Thee we sing. 
Long may our land be bright 
With Freedom's holy light; 
Protect us by thy might, 

Great God, our King! 

SECTION 217. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 240, 
Section 47.) 

SECTION 218. EXERCISE. 

In sentences having the pronouns I, he, we, you, 
they, as subjects, use all tenses of the active indic- 
ative of the verb take. 

Examine the forms, and answer these questions : How 
many forms of the verb are found in the present tense ? 
Can you use the common form in the third person singu- 
lar ? Can you use the s-form in the first person singular ? 
How many forms in the past tense ? How many forms in 
the future ? With what personal pronoun is shall used to 
denote future time ? Is it used in both singular and plural 
numbers ? In the present perfect tense, where is the s-form 
of the auxiliary found ? Does this correspond with the use 
in the present tense ? How many forms of the verb in the 



150 GRAMMAR 

past perfect tense ? Is the use of shall and will the same 
in the future perfect tense as in the future tense ? 

SECTION 219. AGREEMENT OF VERB. 

Long custom has established that certain forms 
of the verb should be used with certain pronouns. 
Using subject and verb together as custom has de- 
cided is termed "making the verb agree with its 
subject." 

A VERB MUST AGREE WITH ITS SUBJECT TN PERSON AND NUMBER. 

From the study of the forms of the verb take 
and of other verbs, we learn that : — 

1. In the present tense, the s-form of the verb is used 
with the singular of the third personal pronoun, and 
with the singular of all nouns. 

2. In the present perfect tense, the s-form of the 
auxiliary (has) is used with the third person singu- 
lar of pronouns, and with singular nouns. 

3. In either the past or the past perfect tense, there is 
but one form of the verb, and there is no chance for 
error in agreement. 

4. In the future and the future perfect tenses, the 
auxiliary verb shall is used with the singular and 
plural forms of the first personal pronoun; the 
auxiliary verb will is used with the second and third 
personal pronouns and all nouns. (For the use of 
shall and will as full verbs, see Section 221.) 

If the subject of a verb is a collective noun, the 
verb should be singular when the units are consid- 
ered as composing one group; plural when the units 
are thought of singly. 

Example. An army is coming. 

An army of tramps are straggling into town. 

Two singular nouns connected by and, making 



AGREEMENT OF VERB 151 

a compound subject, must be followed by a verb in 
the plural. 

Example. A strong wind and a full sail bring joy to the 
sailor. 

Sometimes two objects are considered together as 
one. In such a case, the verb agrees with the idea 
named by the words and is in the singular. 

Example. Bread is the staff of life; but bread and 
butter is a gold-headed cane. 

Two singular nouns connected by or or nor, mak- 
ing a compound subject, are followed by a singular 
verb. 

Example. A violet or a rose is my favorite wild flower. 

When a singular subject is modified by a phrase 
denoting addition, generally introduced by with, to- 
gether with, as well as, the verb is in the singular. 

Example. The bat together with the balls was stolen. 

After each, every, either, neither, one, etc., the 
verb should be singular. 

Example. Every one of the men works steadily. 

Since conjunctive pronouns are not inflected for 
number, the antecedent tells the number of the pro- 
noun. A verb whose subject is a conjunctive pro- 
noun agrees with the antecedent in number and 
person. 

Example. One of the best books that have been pub- 
lished recently is "Little Rivers." 

The title of a book requires a singular verb, 
though it is plural in form. 

Example. "The Virginians" is a good story. 



152 GRAMMAR 

When the subject of a verb is two pronouns of 
different persons connected by or, usage differs. It 
sounds better to say " Either he or I is going," and 
" You or I are going " ; although there is good 
authority for saying am going in both these sen- 
tences. Politeness seems to call for the retirement 
of self, and to give the government of the verb to 
the pronouns of the second and third persons. 

SECTION 220. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 241, Sec- 
tion 48.) 

SECTION 221. SOME COMMON VERBS. 
SHALL AND WILL. 

Some verbs, at times used as auxiliaries, at other 
times are full attributive verbs. Among these are 
shall, will, should, would, have, had, may, and 
might. With these we shall also consider the com- 
mon verbs can, could, ought, and let. 

(a) I wish help. 

(b) I wish to go. 

(c) I will your destruction. 

(d) I will stand here, and no one can hinder me. 

(e) I will go with you. 

(f) "Mary, you must not go." "I shall go." 

(g) You shall do it. 

(h) Jennie shall go to the store. 

(i) Shall I go ? You shall. (Compulsion.) 

(j) Shall you go? I shall. (Futurity.) 

(k) Will you go ? I will. (Promise.) 

(1) Shall he go ? He shall. (Compulsion.) 

(m) Will he go ? He will. (Futurity.) 

What is the object of wish in (a) ? of wish in (b) ? What 
is the object of will in (c) ? of will in (d) ? Do you see that 
in (d) as in (c) the wilUng is the thing that is asserted .^ In 



"SHALL" AND "WILL" 153 

(d) just as in (c) will is a full attributive verb. The object 
is the infinitive stand. (See Section 242, 3.) Is not the 
tense the same in (d) as in (c) ? What tense is will in (c) ? 
(See Section 196.) When will is a full verb, in what tense 
is it always ? 

Is simple futurity expressed by shall in (f) ? or is it 
something more ? What attribute is expressed by shall 
in (g) ? in (h) ? In (f), (g), and (h), is shall a full verb or 
an auxiliary ? What is the object of shall in each of the 
sentences ? What two attributes may be expressed by 
shall ? When shall is a full verb, in what tense is it ? 

In (i) to (m), tell which words in both questions and 
answers are full verbs and which auxiliaries. Notice, too, 
that the answers use the same verb as is used in the 
question. 

Shall and will have two uses : as full verbs and as 
auxiliaries. When full verbs they are nearly always 
completed by infinitives as object complements (see 
Section 248) ; and they are in the present tense. 

As an auxiliary verb, shall is used in declarative 
sentences with a first person subject to de- shau. 

note futurity. 

As a full verb, shall may be used : — 

1. to express compulsion, when the subject is in the 
second or third person; 

2. to express determination, or obstinacy, when the 
subject is in the first person. 

As an auxiliary, will is used in declarative sen- 
tences with the second or third person to ^^ 
denote futurity. 

As a full verb, will is used to express (1) deter- 
mination or (2) promise, w^hen the subject is in the 
first person. 

In asking questions the same verb will or shall 
should be used that is expected in the shaii and 
answer. If the answer is to be a full verb. Questions. 



154 GRAMMAR 

use the same full verb in the question ; if the answer 
is to be an auxiliary denoting simple futurity, use 
the same auxiliary in the question. (See sentences 
(i) to (m). 

SECTION 222. EXERCISE. 

Write sentences in which shall is used to express 
a simple future ; obstinacy ; compulsion. Form ques- 
tions in which will is used to express a simple future ; 
a promise ; determination. 

SECTION 223. EXERCISE. 

Tell whether the verbs in the sentences below are 
full or auxiliary, and give the meaning of each. Also 
give the tense of the verbs and the object comple- 
ment of each. 

1. I shall be a man. 

2. I will be a man. 

3. It shall be as you say. 

4. It will be as you say. 

5. Shall George Washington hold the first place in the 
Hall of Fame ? 

6. Will George Washington hold the first place in the 
Hall of Fame ? 

7. Shall we study pictures ? 

8. When will the leopard change his spots ? 

9. Shall the United States be free and independent ? 

10. Cuba shall be free. 

11. Shall you go? I shall. 

12. Will you go ? I will. 

13. When shall we three meet again ? 

14. He shall know what we think of his behavior in this 
matter. 

15. I shan't go, and I won't. 

SECTION 224. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 242, 
Section 49.) 



"SHOULD" AND "WOULD" 155 

SECTION 225. SOME COMMON VERBS — (continued). 
SHOULD AND WOULD. 

(a) We should do the gracious thing. 

(b) You should go; find the time. 

(c) They should treat him with respect, if they cannot 
honor him. 

(d) He wishes to do right, but at times it seems impos- 
sible. 

(e) He would do right, but at times it seems impossible. 

(f) I would not go even if I could. 

(g) He would wander all day by the side of some clear 
stream. 

In (a), (b), and (c), should is a full verb. What does it 
mean ? Does it make any dift'erence whether the subject 
is first, second, or third person ? What tense is the verb ? 
(See Section 196.) What time does it denote, — present, 
or future, or both ? 

Does the meaning of (d) and (e) seem to you the 
same ? What is the object of wishes in (d) ? of would in 
(e) ? What does would mean in (e) and (f) ? Is would a 
full verb ? What tense is it ? What time does it denote ? 

In (g) would means was accustomed to. What is the 
object of the verb ? 

Should and would are the past tense forms of 
shall and will. As full verbs they denote either 
present or future time. 

When they are used as auxiliaries, they follow the 
rules given for shall and will as auxiliaries, except 
that would is never used as the auxiliary in a verb- 
phrase in conditions. 

Should is sometimes a full verb, denoting duty 
or compulsion. 

Would is sometimes a full verb denoting : — 

1. desire or intention; 

2. a customary action. 



156 GRAMMAR 

SECTION 226. EXERCISE. 

Tell what the verbs mean in the following sen- 
tences : — 

1. He should go. 

2. He would go. 

3. I knew he should go. 

4. I should not like to leave them. 

5. Should you go ? 

6. You should take care of yourself. 

7. I should be thought guilty. 

8. They would pay their bills, but they cannot. 

9. They should pay their bills, but they will not. 

10. Samuel Johnson would touch every picket in the 
fence as he walked along the street. 

11. Why should the spirit of mortal be proud? 

12. Whatsoever things ye would that men should do 
unto you, do ye even so unto them. 

SECTION 227. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 242, 
Section 50.) 

SECTION 228. SOME COMMON VERBS — (continued). 
MAY AND HAVE. 

(a) We may play. 

(b) They may take their games with them. 

(c) The earth may fall into the sun. 

(d) He said that the earth might fall into the sun. 

(e) They have truth on their side. 

(f) Wickedness has to yield. 

(g) They had to hasten. 

In (a), what is asserted, — permission or playing? 
Does may in (b) assert a permission ? Does may in (a) 
and (b) seem to you a full verb ? What does it denote .^ 
When may or might denotes permission, its object, an 
infinitive, names that which is permitted. 



"CAN," "COULD," "MUST," "OUGHT," "LET" 157 

In (c), does may assert the possibility of the earth 
falhng ? What is the object of may in (c) ? Show that 
possibihty is asserted by might in (d). Are they full verbs 
or auxiliaries ? 

In (e), (f), and (g), are the verbs full verbs ? 

May and might are auxiliary verbs in subjunctive 
verb-phrases when they denote a wish or a purpose. 

May and might are full attributive verbs when 
they denote permission or possibility. They are 
then completed by an infinitive without the word to. 
(See Section 248.) 

Have and had are often auxiliary verbs, making 
part of verb-phrases. They may also be full verbs 
denoting to hold in possession; in which case the 
object is usually a noun. Or they may be full verbs, 
denoting necessity. In this case the object is an 
infinitive. 

SECTION 229. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences, and tell whether 
the verbs may, might, have, and had are full or aux- 
ihary verbs : — 

1. Princes and lords may flourish or may fade. 

2. May there be no ill-will between us. 

3. I do entreat that we may sup together. 

4. She was as fair as fair might be. 

5. You might do it if you chose. 

6. The lark has to sing; he has a joyful heart. 

7. Where has he learned his simple melody ? 

8. The boy whistles that he may not be afraid. 

9. I have seen more days than thou. 
10. Many a word at random spoken 

May soothe, or wound, a heart that's broken. 

SECTION 230. SOME COMMON VERBS— (continued). 
CAN, COULD, MUST, OUGHT, LET. 

(a) Who can be president of the United States ? 

(b) Aaron Burr could not succeed. 



158 GRAMMAR 

(c) Whoever succeeds must work. 

(d) These things ought ye to have done. 

(e) Let us join in singing the national anthem. 

(f) Let him beware lest he fall. 

(g) Let me go a free man. 

Study the uses of these common verbs as you have of 
those preceding and determine whether they are full or 
auxiliary verbs. If full verbs, what is their object ? What 
difference do you notice about the object of ought? 

Sentences (e), (f), and (g) are imperative? What per- 
sonal pronoun is always the subject of a verb in the 
imperative mode ? Then if one wished to give a command 
to himself or to some third person, he must adopt the 
method in (e), (f), and (g). Let is in the imperative mode; 
its subject is you understood. What is to be let, or allowed, 
in (e) ? (See Section 248.) What, then, is the object of 
Let? 

Can and could are full attributive verbs denoting 
power or ability. They are completed by an infini- 
tive without the word to. Must is a full attributive 
verb, denoting duty or necessity. It is completed 
by an infinitive without the word to. 

Ought is a full attributive verb denoting duty or 
necessity. It is completed by an infinitive with the 
word to. 

Let lias an idiomatic use in our language. There 
is no imperative in the first and third persons. By 
the use of let and an infinitive with its subject in 
the objective case, we have made a substitute for 
these omitted imperatives. (For the construction of 
the infinitive, see Section 248.) 

SECTION 231. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 244, 
Section 51.) 



EXERCISE 159 

SECTION 232. TENSE OF THESE COMMON VERBS. 

Write out the conjugation of will; shall; may; 
can ; must ; and ought. How many forms has each ? 
How many tenses ? 

(a) He shall be put to shame now. 

(b) He shall be put to shame tomorrow. 

(c) He should be present now. 

(d) He should be present tomorrow. 

In (a) and (b), what tense-form is used ? What time is 
denoted in (a) ? in (b) ? In (c) and (d), what tense-form 
is used ? May the verb should denote present time ? past 
time ? Is definite time denoted by shall and should? 

Frame easy sentences using will and would. Question 
yourselves to learn whether these verbs denote definite time. 

Do the same with can, may, must, ought, could, would, 
might. 

Do the tenses of these common verbs denote as definite 
time as the tenses of other verbs .^ 

The verbs will, shall, would, should, can, could, 
must, ought, when they are fuU attributive, have 
some tense-forms ; but these forms do not indicate 
definite notions of time. The present form denotes 
either present or future time ; while the past form 
as seen in should, would, could, and might, may 
denote present or future time. 

In parsing these verbs^ name the tense-form, and 
state the time which is denoted in the sentence. 

SECTION 233. EXERCISE. 

In Sections 223 and 226, parse the verbs and 
verb-phrases according to the models. 

MODELS. 

(Section 223, sentence 1.) "Shall be" is an incomplete, 
copulative verb-phrase. It is in the indicative mode, 



160 GRAMMAR 

future tense, first person, singular number, agreeing with 
its subject "I." 

(Section 22S, sentence 2.) "Will" is an incomplete, 
transitive verb. It is in the active voice, indicative mode, 
present tense, denoting either present or future time, first 
person, singular number, agreeing with its subject "I." 

(Section 226, sentence 1.) "Should" is an incomplete, 
transitive verb. It is in the active voice, indicative mode, 
past tense, denoting present or future time, third person, 
singular number, agreeing with its subject "He." 

SECTION 234. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 245, 
Section 52.) 

SECTION 235. PARTICIPLES. 
A PARTICIPLE IS A VERBAL ADJECTIVE. (See Section 129.) 

Find five sentences containing participles ending 
in ing. 

Find five sentences containing participles ending 
in d, ed, t, n, or en. 

There are but two simple participles : the present, 
ending in ing; and the past, having a number of 
endings, d, ed, t, n, and en. The verbal used in 
progressive verb-phrases is the present participle ; 
and the verbal used in the perfect tenses and in the 
passive voice is the past participle. 

SIMPLE PARTICIPLES. 

Present drawing lifting 

Past drawn lifted 

From these simple participles, by the use of aux- 
iliaries, a number of phrasal participles are formed. 

PHRASAL PARTICIPLES. 
ACTIVE VOICE. 

Perfect having drawn having lifted 

Perfect Progressive having been drawing having been 

lifting 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE PARTICIPLE IGl 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Present being drawn being lifted 

Perfect having been drawn having been Ufted 

All the participles can be arranged by voices as 
follows : — 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Present drawing lifting 

Perfect having drawn having lifted 

Perfect Progressive having been drawing having been 

lifting 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Present being drawn being lifted 

Past drawn lifted 

Perfect having been drawn having been lifted 

SECTION 236. CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE PAKTICIPLE. 

(a) Landing at Boston, let the traveler push northward 
and cross the River Saco. 

(b) Here were the xA^benakis, found along the Kennebec 
and other rivers. 

(c) When the medicine-man had finished his wild song, 
the band of warriors departed. 

d) The medicine-man having finished his wild song, 
the band of warriors departed. 

(e) Considering the facts, he received scant justice. 

(f) Generally speaking, we receive what we deserve. 

Participles are verbal adjectives, and they have the 
most common constructions of adjectives, as modifiers 
of nouns and pronouns. These sentences show two new 
constructions. 

Is the idea expressed in the phrase in (d) the same as 
that expressed by the clause in (c) ? Is there a word to 
connect the phrase. The medicine-man having finished his 
wild song, to the rest of the sentence ? How, then, is the 
participial phrase used in (d) ? (See Section 90.) 

Does considering modify any word in (e) ? Does 
speaking modify any word in (f ) ? Then in what construc- 
tion are they "^ 



162 GRAMMAR 

A participle may be used in the following con- 
structions : — 

1. as a direct modifier; 

2. as an attribute complement; 

3. as an objective complement; 

4. with a noun or pronoun making an independent 
element of a sentence; 

5. absolutely. 

(Constructions 2 and 3 are very unusual. Examples 
are: The heat is burning. The dog kept the fox running.) 

A noun or pronoun modified by a participle is 
often an absolute or independent member of a sen- 
tence ; as in (d). The participle itself is in the 
ordinary construction (see 1 above). The noun or 
pronoun is in the nominative case ; and for this 
reason the whole construction is often called the 
nominative absolute. (See Section 151, 12.) 

A participle without a noun or pronoun is some- 
times used absolutely. It may then be modified as 
any other participle; as (e) and (f). 

SECTION 237. EXERCISE. 

Select and classify the participles in Sections 130 
and 137. 

SECTION 238. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 248, 
Section 53.) 

SECTION 239. INFINrnVES. 
AN INFINITIVE IS A VERBAL NOUN. (See Section 132.) 

There are two classes of verbal nouns : root infini- 
tives and gerunds. There is but one simple root 
infinitive ; the others are phrasal. And there is but 
one simple gerund. 



CONSTRUCTIONS OF INFINITIVES 163 

ROOT INFINITIVES. 

ACTIVE. 

Present (to) go (to) lift 

Present Progressive (to) be going (to) be lifting 

Perfect (to) have gone (to) have lifted 

Perfect Progressive (to) have been going (to) have been 

lifting 

PASSIVE. 

Present (to) be lifted 

Perfect (to) have been 



lifted 



GERUNDS. 



Present going lifting 

Perfect having gone having lifted 

Perfect Progressive having been going having been 

lifting 

PASSIVE. 

Present being lifted 

Perfect having been 



lifted 



SECTION 240. EXERCISE. 



Select and classify the infinitives and gerunds in 
Sections 134 and 137. 

SECTION 241. EXERCISE. 

Frame sensible sentences using the following infin- 
itives and gerunds : the present, active gerund of 
sing ; the perfect, active infinitive of lose ; the per- 
fect, passive infinitive of see; the present, passive 
gerund of deceive; the perfect, active infinitive of 
charm. 

SECTION 242. CONSTRUCTIONS OF INFINITIVES. 

(a) To speak and to speak well are two things. (See 
Section 4.) 

(b) Spending much is having little. (See Sections 4 
and 16.) 



164 GRAMMAR 

(c) To have tried earnestly is success. (See Section 4.) 

(d) To hear Webster was to be convinced. (See Sec- 
tions 4 and 16.) 

(e) The Indians learned to deceive. (See Section 34.) 

(f) We taught the Indians to deceive. (See Section 34.) 

(g) Longfellow loved doing little kindnesses. (See Sec- 
tion 34.) 

(h) He may go, for it is time. (See Section 34.) 

Give the three constructions of infinitives and gerunds 
found in these sentences. If you are in doubt about any 
of them, the section numbers will help you. 

The word to is usually what part of speech ? Does it 
show any relation in any of these sentences ? Does it con- 
nect ? Does it name the action ? Has it really any use in 
these sentences ? 

The commonest constructions of an infinitive or 
gerund are : — 

1. as subject; as in (a), (b), (c), (d); 

2. as attribute complement; as in (b), (d); 

3. as object complement; as in (e), (f), (g), (h). 

Because the word to is usually found with the 
infinitive, it has come to be called the sig'n 

"To " tho ... . 

Sign of the of the infinitive. It is used when the 
infinitive is subject, attribute complement, 
or object complement. But it forms no part of the 
infinitive, and in some constructions it is dropped. 
(For its omission, see Section 248.) 

SECTION 243. EXERCISE. 

Make sensible sentences in which an infinitive is 
a subject ; a gerund is a subject ; an infinitive is an 
attribute complement; a gerund is an attribute 
complement ; an infinitive is an object complement ; 
a gerund is an object complement. 



INFINITIVE AND GERUND 165 

SECTION 244. rKTiriNITIVE AND GERUND IN PREPOSI- 
TIONAL PHRASES. 

(a) The priests were busy with preaching and singing 
vespers. 

(b) Lincoln found many problems to solve. , 

(c) He studied to understand the difficulties. 

(d) He was able to act wisely. 

(e) What can they do but retreat ? 

What is the prepositional phrase in (a) ? What are 
the principal words ? 

In (b), what does the phrase to solve modify ? Is the 
phrase to solve equivalent to the phrase for solving ? What 
is solving in the latter phrase ? Solve in the former has 
the same construction. It is a simple infinitive used as 
the principal word in a prepositional phrase. 

In (c), what does the prepositional phrase to under- 
stand modify ? What phrase can you substitute for this 
phrase, as you did in (b) ? This phrase is an adverbial 
modifier expressing purpose of the verb it modifies, 
studied. This is the common way of expressing purpose in 
modern English. He ran to catch the train ; We worked 
to get it ready; He whistled to keep his courage up, — 
all these show examples of an infinitive used as the 
principal word of a prepositional phrase expressing 
purpose. 

In (d), what does the phrase to act modify ? What part 
of speech is able ? What kind of phrase is to act, then ? 
What is the principal word of this phrase ? 

But with the meaning of except is a preposition. What, 
then, is but retreat ? What is retreat ? 

From a study of the sentences above we learn 
that an infinitive or a gerund may be the principal 
word in a prepositional phrase. Such a prepo- 
sitional phrase may modify a noun, an adjective, or 
a verb. 

When an infinitive is the principal Avord of a 
prepositional phrase, the word to has its ordinary 



166 GRAMMAR 

use as a preposition. It is not the sign of an in- 
finitive. 

SECTION 245. EXERCISE. 

The following sentences contain participles, ger- 
unds, and infinitives. Select them and tell their use 
in the sentences. 

1. The miracle plays were written to teach the people 
the stories of the Bible. 

2. The priests acted out the story of the building of the 
ark. 

3. They drove about the city in great two-story 
wagons, stopping at certain places to act the 
play. 

4. The actors did everything to make the plays real 
to the people. 

5. In these plays Satan wore a hideous suit of leather 
covered with black hair and feathers. 

6. I was glad to hear of his doing so well. 

7. The silver, snarling trumpets 'gan to chide. 

8. Some chains we have no skill to break. 

9. George III, by trying to curb the growing liberties 
of the American colonies, forfeited forever the 
brightest jewel in the British crown. 

10. The first step to greatness is to be honest. 

11. A great man, living to high ends, is the divinest 
thing on earth. 

12. Winter lingering chills the lap of May. 

13. The bell strikes one. We take no note of time 
But from its loss. To give it, then, a tongue 
Is wise in man. 

14. Old friends are best. King James used to call for 
his old shoes. They were easiest to his feet. 

15. When she had passed, it seemed like the ceasing of 
exquisite music. 

16. The leaves of memory seemed to make 
A mournful rustling in the dark. 



INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT 167 

17. Within the rose I found a trembhng tear, 
Close curtained in a gloom of crimson night 
By tender petals from the outer light. 

SECTION 246. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 250, Sec- 
tion 54.) 

SECTION 247. AN INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT. 

(a) The bird sings. 

(b) The bird is singing. 

(c) I believe that the bird sings. 

(d) I have heard that the bird is singing. 

(e) I wish that the bird would sing. 

(f) I wish the bird to sing. 

(g) I expect the bird to be singing, 
(h) I hear the bird sing. 

(i) I hear the bird singing. 
(j) I thought the man to be honest. 
(k) I considered him honest. 

(1) That a man should die for his country is noble. 
(m) That a man should live for his country is nobler. 
(n) For a man to die for his country is noble. 
(o) For a man to live for his country is nobler. 
(p) It is noble for a man to die for his country. 
(q) It is a beautiful morning for a walk. 
(r) It is a beautiful morning for you to walk. 
(s) It is a beautiful morning for you to be walking. 

What is the subject of (a) ? of (b) ? the predicate of 
each ? What clause is the object complement of (c) ? in 
(d) ? What kind of a verb is wish in (e) ? W^hat is its 
object ? Of this noun-clause what is the subject ? the 
predicate ? What is the object of wish in (f) ? Does the 
relation between bird and to sing seem the same as that 
between the subject and predicate of the clause in (e) ? 
Would it seem right to call bird the subject of the in- 
finitive to sing in (f) ? In (g), is bird the subject of the 
infinitive to be singing? In (h), what is the object com- 



168 GRAMMAR 

plement of hear? How do you know that sing is not 
a verb in the third person, singular number ? What word 
which you have usually seen before an infinitive is 
omitted before sing in (h) ? What words are omitted from 
the infinitive in (i) ? What is the object of thought in (j) ? 
What is the subject of the infinitive to be ? What is 
its attribute complement ? In (k), what words have been 
omitted ? Should they be supplied when you analyze the 
sentence ? 

What is the subject of (1) ? of (m) ? What words in the 
phrase in (n) correspond with the subject and predicate 
of the noun clause of (1) ? What is the use of That in (1) 
and (m) ? For performs the same office in (n) and (o). 
What might you call For when used in this way ? What is 
the real subject of (p) ? What is the anticipatory subject ? 
What use has for in this sentence ? What part of speech is 
for in (q) ? Is it the same in (r) ? in (s) ? What is the 
object of the preposition in (r) ? in (s) ? 

Insert he or him in place of bird in (d) and (e). What 
case of the pronoun did you use ? Now insert one of the 
same words in place of bird in (f), (g), (h), and (i). What 
case did you use ? Use him or he in place of man in (n) 
and (o). What case do you find used always as subject 
of an infinitive ? 

SECTION 248. FIVE CONSTRUCTIONS OP INFINITIVES. 

Infinitives and gerunds are found in five construc- 
tions. They may be used : — 

1. as subject; 

2. as attribute complement; 

3. as object complement; 

4. as principal word in a prepositional phrase; 
This prepositional phrase may be : — 

(a) an adjective phrase modifying a noun or 

pronoun; as, bread to eat. 

(b) an adverbial phrase denoting purpose, most 

frequently found after a verb expressing 
motion; as, He came to see. 



CONSTKUCTIONS OF INFINITIVES 169 

(c) an adverbial phrase modifying an adjective. 
The adjectives most commonly modified 
by this prepositional phrase are ready, 
able, fit, apt, desirous, certain, sure, 
content, happy, easy, hard, beautiful, 
necessary; as, ready to work; beautiful 
to hear. 
5. as part of a phrase with the subject of the assumed 
assertion in the objective case. 

The infinitive with its subject in the objective 
case may be : — 

1. the subject of a verb; 

In this case it is introduced by the word for, which 

has no connective value. Construction 

^ , . , , , of Infinitive 

2. an object complement; with subject. 
In this case the word to is often omitted. 

3. the principal word of a prepositional phrase. 

"For" may have its true value as a preposition before 
an infinitive with its subject in the objective case. 

(a) I dare do all that may become a man. ^j^^ omission 

(b) He whose life is clean need have no fear, of the sign of 
) < T 4. 1 the Infinitive. 

(c) Let my people go. 

(d) I feel the frightened bird's heart flutter. 

(e) Yet hear me, countrymen ; yet hear me speak. 

There are a number of infinitives in these sen- 
tences without the word to. Find them. 

Infinitives are used without the word to after : — 

1. the verbs dare, bid, need, make, let, can, may, must, 
shall, will; 

2. verbs denoting an action of the senses or of the mind ; 
as, hear and see. 

This infinitive generally has a subject in the ob- 
jective case ; as, I hear the bell ring ; I hear the bell 
ringing ; I hear him speak. 



170 GRAMMAR 

To parse a verbal, give : — 

1. its classification, as present, past, or perfect; active 
or passive ; if it is progressive, state that fact ; 

2. the classification of the verb from which it is de- 
rived, as complete or incomplete; copulative or at- 
tributive; transitive or intransitive; 

3. the construction of the verbal. 

SECTION 249. EXEKCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences according to the 
model : — 

Model. "He studied to understand the difficulties" 
is a simple, declarative sentence. The bare unmodified 
subject is "He"; the complete predicate is "studied to 
understand the difficulties." The bare predicate is " stud- 
ied," a copula-attribute. The predicate is, therefore, of the 
second type. " Studied " is modified by the prepositional 
phrase "to understand the difficulties." Of this phrase, 
the principal word is the infinitive " understand." 
"Understand" is completed by the object complement 
"difficulties." "Difficulties" is modified by "the." 

1. I am never in a position to judge another. 

2. The only way to make people good is to be good. 

3. The way to get out of self-love is to love God. 

4. That night the moon seemed to balance her silver 

bow upon the mountain's brow. 

5. Boys have a great way of helping each other to do 
nothing. 

6. To " sugar-off " is to boil the syrup until it is thick 
enough to crystallize into sugar. 

7. The lesson thoroughly learned is easy to recite. 

8. We '11 teach him to know turtles from jays. 

9. Columbines have found a way to overcome the hard 
and gray old rocks. 

10. Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise; 
My footstool earth, my canopy the skies. 



EXERCISE 171 



SECTION 250. EXERCISE. 



Analyze the following sentences and parse the 
verbals : — 

Model. To have tried earnestly is success. 

'T is an ill cure 
For life's worst ills to have no time to feel them. 
Aroused by this success, the country rose to check the 

invader. 
Baron Steuben was of great service in organizing and 

drilling the American troops. 
Sometimes we think that we can reach the stars. 

" To have tried " is a perfect, active infinitive, from the 
complete, attributive verb try. It is here the subject of the 
sentence. 

"To have" is a present, active infinitive, from the in- 
complete, transitive verb have. It is the real subject of the 
sentence. 

"Feel" is a present, active infinitive, from the incom- 
plete, transitive verb feel. It is the principal word of a 
prepositional phrase. 

"Aroused" is a past, passive participle, from the com- 
plete, attributive verb arouse. It modifies "country." 

" Organizing " is a present, active gerund, from the 
incomplete, transitive verb organize. It is the principal 
word of a prepositional phrase. 

" Reach " is a present, active infinitive, from the incom- 
plete, transitive verb reach. It is the object complement 
ot can. 

1. Teach me to feel another's woe. 

2. It is better to suffer wrong than to do it, and hap- 
pier to l)e sometimes cheated than not to trust. 

3. It needs brains to be a real fool. 

4. So teach us to number our days that we may apply 
our hearts unto wisdom. 

5. Genius can never despise labor. 

6. All night long 

He had lain wakeful, tossing on his bed. 



172 GRAMMAR 

7. Rustum had risen, 

And stood erect, trembling with rage. 

8. So did King Afrasiab bid me seek 
Thy counsel, and to heed thee. 

9. I am no girl, to be made afraid by threats. 

10. She will hear the winds howling, 
Will hear the waves roar. 

11. I heard of his attempting to lift himself by his 
boot-straps. 

12. How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is 
To have a thankless child! 

13. I am Sir Oracle, 

And when I ope my lips, let no dog bark. 

14. 'T is greatly wise to talk with our past hours. 
And ask them what report they bore to heaven. 

15. Being in a ship is like being in a jail, with the 
chance of being drowned. 

16. So have I heard on Afric's burning shore 
A hungry lion give a grievous roar; 

The grievous roar echoed along the shore. 
So have I heard on Afric's burning shore 
Another lion give a grievous roar; 
And the first lion thought the last a bore. 

17. It is hard for an empty bag to stand upright. 

18. Why doth one man's yawning make another yawn ? 

19. How easy it is for one benevolent being to diffuse 
pleasure around him; and how truly is a kind 
heart a fountain of gladness, making everything 
in its vicinity to freshen into smiles ! Irving= 

20. It is a noble and great thing to cover the blemishes 
and excuse the failings of a friend; to draw a 
curtain before his stains, and to display his perfec- 
tions ; to bury his weaknesses in silence, but to pro- 
claim his virtues from the housetop. South. 

SECTION 251. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition^ see page 253, 
Section 55.) 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS 173 

SECTION 252. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 
OLD AND NEW CONJUGATIONS. 

The present infinitive, the past tense, and the 
past participle are called the principal parts of a 
verb. This is because with these three forms all the 
other forms of a verb may be made. 

Write out in three columns the principal parts of 
the following verbs : rain, separate, paint, accus- 
tom, collect, carry, compose, build. 

Point out the ways in which the past indicative differs 
from the present infinitive. How does the past participle 
differ from the present infinitive ? What letters are added 
to the present infinitive to form the past indicative and the 
past participle ? 

Write in columns the principal parts of the fol- 
lowing verbs : know, ring, freeze, bite, spin, find, 
drink, write, beat. 

Tell all the ways in which you have formed the past 
tense and past participle of these verbs. 

Most verbs form their past tense and past parti- 
ciple by adding ed, d, or t to the present infinitive 
form, often making another syllable. 

These verbs include the newer ones of our lan- 
guage, and are said to belong to the new conjuga- 
tion. 

There is a small number of verbs that follow the 
changes of the Old English in forming their princi- 
pal parts. They are usually words of one syllable, 
and are among the earliest verbs in the language. 
These belong to the old conjugation. 

The old conjugation is known by the following 
characteristics : — 



174 . GRAMMAR 

1. A verb of the old conjugation generally changes its 
vowel in changing from the present infinitive to the 
past indicative and past participle; 

2. It does not add a syllable in changing from the 
infinitive to the past indicative ; 

3. The past participle of these verbs ends, or originally 
ended, in n or en. 

Some verbs of this class have now dropped this ending, 
and have no ending in the past participle; as, sit, sat, sat. 

A few verbs have more than one form for some of their 
parts; as, build, builded or built, builded or built. 

Verbs of the old conjugation are often called strong 
verbs; and those of the new conjugation are called weak 
verbs. 



SECTION 253. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

This list includes the most common verbs of the 
old conjugation and some irregular verbs of the new 
conjugation. 



PRESENT INFINITIVE. 


PAST INDICATIVE. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


abide 


abode 


abode 


be 


was 


been 


bear 


bore 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten 


begin 


began 


begun 


bid 


bade 


bade 


bite 


bit 


bitten 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built 


built 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


catch 


caught 


caught 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cling 


clung 


clung 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 



IRREGULAR VERBS 



175 



PRESENT INFmmVE. 


PAST INDICATIVE. 


PAST PAETICIPLE. 


• deal 


dealt 


dealt 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hide 


hid 


hidden 


know 


knew 


known 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


leave 


left 


left 


lie 


lay 


lain 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


nxn 


ran 


run 


see 


saw 


seen 


seek 


sought 


sought 


sell 


sold 


sold 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


sing 


sang 


sung 


sink 


sank 


sunk 


set 


set 


set 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay 


slew 


slain 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


swear 


swore 


sworn 



176 





GKi\MMAR 




:nt infinitive. 


PAST INDICATIVE. 


PAST PARTICIPLE. 


swim 


swam 




swum 


swing 


swung 




swung 


take 


took 




taken 


teach 


taught 




taught 


tear 


tore 




torn 


throw 


threw 




thrown 


wake 


waked, 


woke 


waked, woke 


wear 


wore 




worn 


wind 


wound 




wound 


write 


wrote 




written 



SECTION 254. CONJUGATION OP THE VERB BE. 

Principal Parts. Present, be; past, was; past par- 
ticiple, been. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



1. I am 

2. (Thou art) 

3. He is 



1. I was 

2. (Thou wast) 

3. He was 



1. I shall be 

2. (Thou wilt be) 

3. He will be 



1. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

We are 
You are 
They are 



PAST TENSE. 



We were 
You were 
They were 



FUTURE TENSE. 



We shall be 
You will be 
They will be 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 



I have been 

2. (Thou hast been) 

3. He has been 



We have been 
You have been 
They have been 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been We had been 

2. (Thou hadst been) You had been 

3. He had been They had been 



CONJUGATION OF VERB "BE 



177 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 



1. I shall have been 

2. (Thou wilt have been) 

3. He will have been 



We shall have been 
You will have been 
They will have been 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 



(If) I be 
((If) thou be) 
(If) he be 

(If) I were 
((If) thou wert) 
(If) he were 



(If) we be 
(If) you be 
(If) they be 



PAST TENSE. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 



(If) he have been 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 



2. Be (thou) 



Present 

Past 

Perfect 

Present 
Perfect 

Present 
Perfect 



Be (ye) 

PARTICIPLES. 

Being 
Been 
Having been 

INFINITIVES. 

(to) be 

(to) have been 

GERUNDS. 

Being 
Having been 



SECTION 255. EXERCISE. 



Give the verb be in the third person, singular, 
through all the modes and tenses. Do the same in 
the first person, plural. 



178 GRAMMAR 

The regular arrangement of the forms of a verb 
in one person and number through the different 
modes and tenses is called a synopsis. 

SECTION 256. CONJUGATION OP THE VERB " HIDE." 

Principal Parts. Present, hide; past, hid; past par- 
ticiple, hidden. 

ACTIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MODE 







PRESENT TENSE. 


1. 

3. 


I hide 

(Thou hidest) 
He hides 


We hide 
You hide 
They hide 

PAST TENSE. 


1. 

3. 


I hid 

(Thou hiddest) 

He hid 


We hid 
You hid 
They hid 

FUTURE TENSE. 


1. 
3. 


I shall hide 
(Thou wilt hide) 
He will hide 


We shall hide 
You will hide 
They will hide 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have hidden We have hidden 

2. (Thou hast hidden) You have hidden 

3. He has hidden They have hidden 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had hidden We had hidden 

2. (Thou hadst hidden) You had hidden 

3. He had hidden They had hidden 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall have hidden We shall have hidden 

2. (Thou wilt have hidden) You will have hidden 

3. He will have hidden They will have hidden 



CONJUGATION OF VERB "HIDE" 179 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 

PRESENT TENSE. 
1. 

2. 

3. (If) he hide (The only form in the present.) 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
1. 

2. 

3. (If) he have hidden 

(For the subjunctive verb-phrases with may and 
might, see Section 214. For the subjunctive verb-phrases 
with should and would, see Section 211. For the use of the 
past and past perfect tenses in conditions contrary to fact, 
see Section 211, 3 and 4.) 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
1. 

2. Hide (thou) Hide (you or ye) 

3. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present hiding 

Perfect having hidden 

Perfect Progressive having been hiding 

INFINITIVES. 

Present (to) hide 

Present Progressive (to) be hiding 

Perfect (to) have hidden 

Perfect Progressive (to) have been hiding 

GERUNDS. 

Present hiding 

Perfect having hidden 

Perfect Progressive having been hiding 

PASSIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MODE 
PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I am hidden We are hidden 

2. (Thou art hidden) You are hidden 

3. He is hidden They are hidden 



180 GRAMMAR 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was hidden We were hidden 

2. (Thou wert hidden) You were hidden 

3. He was hidden They were hidden 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall be hidden We shall be hidden 

2. (Thou wilt be hidden) You will be hidden 

3. He will be hidden They will be hidden 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been hidden We have been hidden 

2. (Thou hast been hidden) You have been hidden 

3. He has been hidden They have been hidden 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been hidden We had been hidden 

2. (Thou hadst been hidden) You had been hidden 

3. He had been hidden They had been hidden 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall have been hidden We shall have been hidden 

2. (Thou wilt have been hid- You will have been hidden 

den) 

3. He will have been hidden They will have been hidden 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. (If) I be hidden (If) we be hidden 

2. ((If) thou be hidden) (If) you be hidden 

3. (If) he be hidden (If) they be hidden 

PAST TENSE. 

1. (If) I were hidden 

2. ((If) thou wert hidden) 

3. (If) he were hidden 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 
1. 

2. 

3. (If) he have been hidden 

(For the subjunctive verb-phrases with may and 
might, see Section 214. For the subjunctive verb-phrases 



PARSING VERBS OR VERB-PHRASES 181 

with should and would, see Section 211. For the use of 
the past and past perfect tenses in conditions contrary to 
fact, see Section 211, 3 and 4.) 



1. 

2. Be (thou) 
3. 


IMPERATIVE MODE. 


hidden 


Be (ye) hidden 






PARTICIPLES. 


Present Progressive 

Past 

Perfect 


being hidden 

hidden 

having been hidden 






INFINITIVES. 


Present 
Perfect 




(to) be hidden 

(to) have been hidden 

GERUNDS. 


Present 
Perfect 




being hidden 
having been hidden 



SECTION 257. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 253, 
Section 56.) 

SECTION 258. EXERCISE. 

Write the progressive conjugation of the verb 
hide in such tenses as it is found used. 

Write a synopsis of the verb hide in the third 
person, singular, indicative mode, both active and 
passive voices. 

SECTION 259. PARSING VERBS OR VERB-PHRASES. 

To parse a verb or a verb-phrase, give : — 

1. its classification — 

(a) complete or incomplete, 
(h) copulative or attributive, 



182 GRAMMAR 

(c) transitive or intransitive, 

(d) progressive or emphatic (if it be one of these 
phrases), 

(e) of the old or new conjugation; 

2. its principal parts; 

3. its voice; 

4. its mode; 

5. its tense (note under tense the time that is indicated 
by such verbs as can, should, might, etc.); 

6. its person and number; 

7. its agreement, naming its subject. 

Model. " God gives every bird its food, but he does 
not throw it into the nest." 

*' Gives " is an incomplete, transitive verb of the old 
conjugation. 

Its principal parts are give, gave, given. It is in the 
active voice, indicative mode, present tense, third person, 
singular number, agreeing with its subject, "God." 

"Does throw" is an incomplete, transitive, emphatic 
verb-phrase of the old conjugation. Its principal parts are 
throw, threw, thrown. It is in the active voice, indicative 
mode, present tense, third person, singular number, 
agreeing with its subject, "he." 

"Should old acquaintance be forgot?" 

" Should " is an incomplete, transitive verb of the old 
conjugation. Its principal parts are shall, should; it has 
no participle. It is in the active voice, indicative mode, 
past tense, denoting present or future time, third person, 
singular number, agreeing with its subject, "acquaint- 
ance." 

" Be forgot " is a present, passive infinitive, from the 
incomplete, transitive verb forget. It is used as the object 
complement of the verb "Should." 

" If all the year were playing holidays, 
To sport would be as tedious as to work." 

"Were" is a copulative, intransitive verb of the old 
conjugation. Its principal parts are be or am, was, been. 



ADVERBS 183 

It is in the subjunctive mode, past tense, denoting in- 
definite time in a condition contrary to fact, third person, 
singular number, agreeing with its subject, "year." 

" Would be " is a copulative, intransitive verb-phrase of 
the old conjugation. Its principal parts are be or am, was, 
been. It is in the subjunctive mode, past tense, denoting 
indefinite time in a conclusion contrary to fact, third per- 
son, singular number, agreeing with its subject, " to sport." 

SECTION 260. EXERCISE. 

Turn back to Sections 114 and 137, and parse 
the verbs in those sentences. 

SECTION 261. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the sentences in the poem, " Columbus/' 
on page 230 ; parse all tlie nouns, pronouns, adjec- 
tives, verbs, and verbals. 

SECTION 262. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 254, 
Section 57.) 

SECTION 263. ADVERBS. 

AN ADVERB IS A WORD THAT MODIFIES THE MEANING OF A VERB, 
AN ADJECTIVE, OR AN ADVERB. (See Section 55.) 

(a) Just above the horizon hung a golden fleece. 

(b) Absence of occupation is not rest. 

(c) Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the 
days of my life. 

(d) Eyes are not so common as some people think, or 
poets would be more plentiful. (See Section 115.) 

(e) The more I study the less I seem to know. (See 
Section 180.) 

What does Just modify in (a) ? not in (b) ? Surely in 
(c) ? Not and Surely, by modifying asserting words, 
change the meaning of the whole sentences. 

For the adverbial use of the pairs of words in (d) and 
(e), see the sections referred to. 



184 GRAMMAR 

Adverbs generally modify words ; but rarely one 
is found modifying a prepositional phrase, and it 
seems almost to modify the preposition itself. (See 
(a). . 

The number of adverbs is very large^ and they 
are classified as : — 

1. adverbs of time; as, now, never, then; 

2. adverbs of place; as, here, everywhere, yonder; 

3. adverbs of manner; as, well, harshly, wonderfully; 

4. adverbs of degree; as, very, too, exceedingly; 

5. adverbs of cause or consequence; as, hence, there- 
fore, so. 

A few adverbs modify the copula idea of a verb, 
Modal ^^^ through this the whole sentence. Their 

Adverts. modification changes the mode, or manner 
of the assertion. They are called modal adverbs. 
The commonest modal adverbs are certainly, surely, 
not, possibly, perhaps. 

Yes and no correspond to modal adverbs. But 
these words take the place of whole sentences, and 
therefore are called sentence-adverbs.^ 
Conjunctive Some advcrbs serve as connectives. They 

Adverts. ^^.^ called conjunctive adverbs. 

As — as, so — as, the — the are found used in pairs, 
and so are called correlative conjunctive adverbs. 
So as a correlative should be used only after a nega- 
tive. 

Adverbs may be used as the interrogative words 
Interrogative ^^ ^ Sentence. This may occur in either 
Adverbs. direct or indirect questions. They are 
called interrogative adverbs. (Section 125.) 

Adverbs are usually single words ; but sometimes 
we find idiomatic phrases which have an adverbial 

1 For punctuation of these words, see page 260, V, 10. 



EXERCISE 185 

use, and are bard to separate. Such groups of 
words are called phrasal adverbs. Some ex- Phrasal 
amples are : at all, in vain, for sure, of late. Adverbs. 

There has not the use of an adverb, wben it 
introduces a sentence. It is called an intro- 
ductory word. (See Section 85.) 

Most adverbs of manner and a few others may be 
compared. The rules for their comparison are the 
same as the rules for the comparison of adjectives. 
(See Section 182.) 

264. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the 
adverbs : — 

Model. " Much," in sentence 7 below, is an adverb of 
degree. It is compared, much, more, most. It is a modi- 
fier of used. 

" Just," in (a) of Section 263, is an adverb of degree, 
modifying the phrase "above the horizon." 

" Surely," in (c) of Section 263, is a modal adverb, mod- 
ifying the verb "shall follow," and through this verb 
modifying the whole sentence. 

1. Scarcely was he at sea when a storm scattered his 
vessels. 

2. Here in the soUtude he saw great meadows, where 
the moose with their young were grazing. 

3. Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn 
in no other. 

4. He is no wise man that will quit a certainty for an 
uncertainty. 

5. Things always seem fairer when we look back at them. 

6. The ancients were certainly more social than we, 
though that was natural enough, when a good part 
of the world was still covered with forest. They 
huddled together in cities as well for safety as to 
keep their minds warm. 

7. Knowledge and timber should n't be much used 
till they are seasoned. 



186 GRAMMAR 

8. The world has a milHon roosts for a man, but only 
one nest. 

9. One cannot burn his house down to warm the hands 
even of the fatherless and the widow. 

10. The lawn beneath the trees is already a rich emer- 
ald, and large gold stars begin to spangle it. 

11. The sun shone with mellow light across the rippling 
lake. 

12. Before the ''Wonder-Book" was in the printer's 
hands, Hawthorne's children could repeat the greater 
part of it by heart, from hearing it read so often. 

13. California has been a land of promise in its time, 
like Palestine; but if the woods continue so swiftly 
to perish, it may become, like Palestine, a land of 
desolation. 

14. Nothing is more pleasant to the eye than green 
grass kept finely shorn. 

15. Still the daylight kept flooding insensibly out of the 
east, which was soon to grow incandescent and 
cast up that red-hot cannon-ball, the rising sun. 

16. He did not care a stalk of parsley if I wandered all 
night upon the hills. (See Section 75.) 

17. One charm of Rome is that nobody has anything in 
particular to do, or, if he has, can always stop doing 
it on the slightest pretext. 

18. It is very common for people to say that they are 
disappointed in the first sight of St. Peter's; and 
one hears much the same about Niagara. I cannot 
help thinking that the fault is in themselves; and 
that if the church and the cataract were in the 
habit of giving away their thoughts, they might 
perhaps say of their visitors, " Well, if you are those 
Men of whom we have heard so much, we are a 
little disappointed, to tell the truth." Lowell. 

19. I care not. Fortune, what you me deny: 

You cannot rob me of free Nature's grace, 
You cannot shut the windows of the sky 

Through which Aurora shows her brightening 
face. Thomson. 



PREPOSITIONS 187 

SECTION 265. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 254, Sec. 
tion 58.) 

SECTION 266. PREPOSITIONS. 

A PREPOSITION IS A WORD THAT SHOWS THE RELATION BETWEEN 
TWO IDEAS WHICH ARE NAMED BY THE PRINCIPAL WORD OF THE 
PHRASE AND THE WORD THE PHRASE MODIFIES. (See SecUon 66.) 

(a) Hail to the chief who in triumph advances ! 

(b) Howe'er it be, it seems to me, 
'T is only noble to be good. 

(c) To all, to each, a fair good-night, 

And pleasing dreams, and slumbers light. 

(d) When I heard the song of the hermit thrush, I 
thought I had never heard singing xintil then. 
(See Section 141.) 

(e) The starry banner floats on high. 

(f) None knew her but to love her. (See Section 244.) 

(g) God never imposes a duty "without giving the time 
to do it. (See Section 244.) 

(h) No generous man strives to be seen in his giving. 
(i) The poor poet 

Worships without reward, nor hopes to find 

A heaven save in his worship, 
(j) We should never be grieved by what slanderers 

say. 
(k) Oh, she will sing the savageness out of a bear. 

What part of speech is the principal word in these 
prepositional phrases ? If you need help with some of 
these, see the sections indicated. 

In (i) save means except. What is the construction of 
the phrase in his worship ? What is the preposition in (k) ? 

A preposition is usually a single word, but at 
times two or more words are combined to show 
relation, forming a phrase-preposition. Phrase- 
(See Section 66.) The ones most com- P^position. 
monly seen are : out of, from out, on board of, on 



188 GRAMMAR 

this side of, in front of, according to, for the sake 
of, as to, instead of, in spite of. 

The principal term of a prepositional phrase may 
be: — 

1. a noun; (a) and (k); 

Sometimes prepositions are followed by words that 
are usually classified as adjectives or adverbs, 
such as then in (d) and high in (e). In such cases 
it will be better to call the words nouns, as they 
name a time or place idea. (See Section 141.) 

2. a pronoun ; (b) and (c) ; 

3. an infinitive or a gerund; (f), (g), and (h); 

4. a phrase; (i); 

5. a clause; (j). 

The relations most often shown by prepositions 
are those of time and place. In, on, at, near, to. 
Relations up, down, over, under, through, and a 
Prepositions, number of other prepositions usually show 
a place relation. 

After, before, during, at, in, until, and many others 
usually show a time relation. 

Besides these, there are others which show a va- 
riety of relations; such as, by, of, for, with, against, 
through, from, since. 

To parse a preposition, tell the words 
"^^^' between which it shows the relation. 

SECTION 267. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the sentences, and parse the prepositions. 

Model. "To" is a preposition showing the relation 
between the adjective "ready" and the infinitive "do." 

1. You find people ready enough to do the Samaritan 
without the oil and twopence. 

2. The summer, after much preliminary sulking and 
blustering, seemed ready to begin. 



CONJUNCTIONS 189 

3. The bee does not atone for its sting by its honey- 
making. 

4. The morning breeze creeps up from the west. 

5. The dark months wore slowly on. 

6. His is the earliest mess of green peas; his all the 
mulberries I had fancied mine. He keeps a strict 
eye over one's fruit, and knows to a shade of pur- 
ple when your grapes have cooked long enough in 
the sun. 

7. A tiny speck very close to our vision may blot out 
the glory of the whole world. 

8. It is not possible to make an omelet without break- 
ing eggs. 

9. A sapling pine he wrenched from out the ground. 

10. The yellow violet's modest bell 

Peeps from the last year's leaves below. 

11. In the midst of this sublime and terrible storm, 
Dame Partington, who lived upon the beach, was 
seen at the door of her house with mop and pattens, 
trundling her mop, squeezing out the sea-water, 
and vigorously pushing away the Atlantic ocean. 
The Atlantic was roused; Mrs. Partington's spirit 
was up. But I need not tell you that the contest was 
unequal; the Atlantic ocean beat Mrs. Parting- 
ton. Sidney Smith. 

SECTION 268. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesspn in Composition, see page 255, 
Section 59.) 

SECTION 269. CONJUNCTIONS. 

A CONJUNCTION IS A WORD THAT CONNECTS WORDS, PHRASES, 
CLAUSES, OR PROPOSITIONS. (See Section 113.) 

(a) The fanning wind and purling stream continue her 
repose. 

(b) The waterfalls loud anthems raise, 

By day and in their dreams. 

(c) A soft answer turneth away wrath; but grievous 
words stir up anger. 



190 GRAMMAR 

(d) We cannot expect to be happy, if we do not lead 
pure and useful lives. 

(e) I know Sir John will go, though he were sure it 
would rain cats and dogs. 

(f ) The warm breezes whispered such words of encour- 
agement that the tender violet lifted its head from 
the mould. 
(g) Gather ye rosebuds while ye may. 
(h) Think not that thy word and thine alone must be 

right. 
(i) Either youth must learn economy or old age must 

suffer want. 
(j) Neither good clothes nor great wealth admit to the 

best society. 
(k) I supposed you lived together upon your Span- 
ish estates. I once thought I knew the way to 
mine. 

What elements are connected by conjunctions in (a), 
(b), (c), and (i) ? Are they of equal rank ? A conjunction 
connecting elements of equal rank is called a co-ordinating 
conjunction. 

What kind of sentences are fd), (e), (f), (g), and (h) ? 
What do the conjunctions connect ? Are the elements 
connected of equal rank ? A conjunction connecting ele- 
ments of unequal rank is called a subordinating con- 
junction. % 

A CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTION IS ONE THAT JOINS PARTS OF A SEN- 
TENCE THAT ARE OF EQUAL RANK. 

A SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION IS ONE THAT JOINS A CLAUSE TO A 
PRINCIPAL PROPOSITION. 

Co-ordinating conjunctions may : — 

1. join similar ideas; using such words as and, also, 
moreover, as well as, both — and ; 

2. join opposite ideas; using such words as but, yet, 
. however, not only — but also. 

3. indicate a choice between two ideas; using such 
words as or, nor, either — or, neither — nor ; 



CONJUNCTIONS 191 

4. indicate that one thought is the result or conse- 
quence of another ; using such words as hence, 
therefore, accordingly, consequently. 

Subordinating' conjunctions may join to a princi- 
pal proposition a clause of : — 

1. condition; introduced by if, unless, whether — or, 
as if, provided that; 

2. concession; introduced by though, although, as 
though ; 

3. cause or reason; introduced by because, for, since, 
as, seeing that; 

4. purpose or result; introduced by that, lest, in order 
that, so that; 

5. time or place; introduced by conjunctive adverbs; 
as, when, while, as, imtil, before, after, where ; 

6. degree ; introduced by as — as, so — as, than. (See 
Section 115.) 

The words introducing noun clauses are closely 
related to subordinating conjunctions. They do 
not, however, have any connective value, introduc- 
and are better called introductory words, to^y words. 
The ones most often seen are that, whether, and if. 
(See Sections 118 and 125.) 

Noun clauses are generally used as subjects or 
objects ; but they sometimes seem to be objects of 
prepositions understood. Such constructions are 
found after some verb or adjective indicating an 
action of the senses or the mind ; as sure, certain, 
glad, conscious, surprised, convinced. 

Example. The violet felt certain that spring had come. 

This kind of clauses may also be disposed of by supply- 
ing "of the fact," and making the clause an appositive of 
"fact." "The flower felt certain (of the fact) that Spring 
had come." 



192 GRAMMAR 

A few groups of words are used as connectives ; 
Phrasal they are called phrasal conjunctions. The 

Conjunctions. ^^^^ ^^g^ ^f^^^^ g^^j^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ thoUgh, 

as well as, so that, in order that, provided that, 
according as. 

A few conjunctions are found used in pairs. 
Correlative Thcsc are Called correlative conjunctions. 
Conjunctions, rpj^^ principal c or relatives are either — or, 
neither — nor, both — and, not — but, whether — or. 

A conjunction is often omitted when the relation 
between the parts of the sentence is perfectly clear 
without it. This is seen most frequently in the case 
of and and but, and of that introducing noun clauses. 

After a conjunction of comparison (as or than) 
there is often an elhpsis of a part of the dependent 
clause. The same thing occurs after as if or as 
though, when everything but the predicate attribute 
in the dependent clause is sometimes omitted. 

Example. The bird sang as if (he were) drunk with 
morning dew. 

To parse a conjunction, give its classification, 
Parsing Con- ^^^^ ^^^ words or parts of Sentences it 

junctions. cOUnCCts. 

SECTION 270. EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences and parse all the 
words : — 

1. Joy is more divine than sorrow; for joy is bread 
and sorrow is medicine. 

2. Men are made by nature unequal. It is vain, there- 
fore, to treat them as if they were equal. 

3. Dost thou love life ? Then squander not time, for 
time is the stuff life is made of. 

4. If you wish learning, you must work for it. 

5. Thou shouldst not have been old till thou hadst 
been wise. 



EXERCISE- IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING 193 

6. My tongue within my lips I rein; 

For who talks much must talk in vain. 

7. Never hold any one by the buttc^ or the hand in 
order to be heard out; for if people are unwilling to hear 
you, you had better hold your tongue than them. 

8. The voice and manner of speaking, too, are not to 
be neglected. Some people almost shut their mouths when 
they speak, and mutter so that they are not to l)e under- 
stood ; others speak so fast, and sputter, that they are not 
to be understood either; some always speak as loud as if 
they were talking to deaf people; and others so low that 
one cannot hear them. All these habits are awkward and 
disagreeable, and are to be avoided by attention ; they are 
the distinguishing marks of the ordinary people who have 
had no care taken of their education. 

Chesterfield, from Letters to his Son. 

9. I am the owner of great estates. Many of them lie 
in the West ; but the greater part of them are in Spain. You 
may see my western possessions any evening at sunset 
when their spires and battlements flash against the hori- 
zon. 

........ ^. 

One day as I raised my head from entering some long 
and tedious accounts in my books, and began to reflect 
that the quarter was expiring, and that I must begin to 
prepare the balance-sheet, I observed my subordinate, in 
ofiice but not in years (for poor old Titbottom will never 
see sixty again), leaning on his hand and much abstracted. 

"Are you not well, Titbottom?" asked I. 

" Perfectly, but I was just building a castle in Spain," 
said he. 

I looked at his rusty coat, his faded hands, his sad eye, 
and white hair for a moment, in great surprise, and then 
inquired, " Is it possible that you own property there too ? " 

He shook his head silently; and still leaning on his 
hand, and with an expression in his eye as if he were look- 
ing upon the most fertile estate of Andalusia, he went on 
making his plans. 



194 GRAMMAR 

At length I resolved to ask Titbottom if he had ever 
heard of the best route to our estates. He said that he 
owned castles, ^nd sometimes there was an expression in 
his face as if he* saw them. I hope he did. I should long 
ago have asked him if he had ever observed the turrets of 
my possessions in the West, without alluding to Spain, 
if I had not feared he would suppose I was mocking his 
poverty. I hope his poverty has not turned his head, for he 
is very forlorn. 

One Sunday I went with him a few miles into the 
country. It was a soft, bright day, the fields and hills lay 
turned to the sky, as if every leaf and blade of grass were 
nerves, bared to the touch of the sun. I almost felt the 
ground warm under my feet. The meadows waved and 
glittered, the lights and shadows were exquisite, and the 
distant hills seemed only to remove the horizon farther 
away. As we strolled along, picking wild flowers, for it 
was summer, I was thinking what a fine day for a trip to 
Spain, when Titbottom suddenly exclaimed: — 

"Thank God! I own this landscape." 

"You? "returned I. 

*' Certainly," said he. 

" Why," I answered, " I thought this was part of 
Bourne's property ? " 

Titbottom smiled. "Does Bourne own the sun and 
sky ? Does Bourne own that sailing shadow yonder "^ 
Does Bourne own the golden lustre of the grain; or the 
motion of the wood, or those ghosts of hills, that glide 
pallid along the horizon ? Bourne owns the dirt and 
fences; I own the beauty that makes the landscape, or 
otherwise how could I own castles in Spain ? " 

George William Curtis, from Prue and I. 

SECTION 271. COMPOSITION. 

(For the lesson in Composition, see page 255, 
Section 60.) 



SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER. 

The composition lessons and exercises that follow are to be taken 
up in connection with the study of the preceding grammar text, as 
indicated under section headings therein. 

In these lessons, there are very few principles that will be new to 
the student, — only new applications and new material. The pri- 
mary purpose of the composition work, throughout the course in 
grammar, should be to keep up the practice of what has been learned 
during the preceding course in language. Too often the custom has 
been to drop composition work when the study of grammar begins, 
the idea seeming to be that in some mysterious way grammar will 
give the necessary ^training in composition. Grammar does assist 
toward correct expression ; but the only way to gain proficiency in 
writing is to write. Continuous practice is the only road to complete 
expression. 

The subjects suggested for composition are drawn from the three 
most fruitful sources, — the other branches of study, literature, and 
life. For the first year of the combined grammar and composition 
course there are included many subjects suggested by the study of 
geography; and for the second year many historical subjects have 
been used. The subjects given are by no means all that will suggest 
themselves to the wide-awake teacher ; and the best for the time 
and place should be used, whether in the book or out of it. It is 
taken for granted that standard classics will be read ; and from 
these several topics for themes have been selected. If the classics 
referred to should not be used, the teacher's ingenuity will suggest 
other subjects quite as good, in connection with the literature that is 
studied. But the most fruitful source of live subjects is life itself. 
Life is fascinating ; and a child cannot long refrain from talking 
about the great world pulsing around him. 

One thing further is suggested in these lessons. It is well known 
that children make mistakes in speaking when they know better. 
These errors are due to habit. The only way to root out a bad habit 
is to plant a good one in its place. To accomplish this requires pa- 
tient practice in speaking the correct forms. Every day the class 
should read aloud simple idiomatic sentences ; and those children 
who are so unfortunate as to possess a number of these " devils of 



196 SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 

speech " should work earnestly that they may cast them out. Have 
such an one repeat the correction of his besetting error even to sev- 
enty times seven times, if so be he can gain a victory. The sentences 
here are good ; but much better are the corrections of errors that the 
teacher hears from day to day. Keep a list of correct idiomatic 
sentences always on the board, and use it every day.' 



COMPOSITION 



SECTION 1. LETTER-'WRITING. 

The form of letter generally accepted as correct 
contains six parts : heading, address, salutation, 
body of letter, complimentary close, and signature. 
One of the ordinary forms is given below : — 

(Heading.) 

4 Pakk Street, Boston, Mass., 
March 17, 1874. 
(Address.) 
Mb. John G. Whittier, 

Amesbury, Mass. 

(Salutation.) 

Mr DEAR Sir: 

(Body of Letter.) 

(Complimentary close.) 
Very truly yours, 

(Signature.) 

James R. Osgood. 

In business letters, and in most others, the heading 
should be placed and arranged as in the form above. 
In formal notes of invitation, acceptance, and regret, 
it is omitted altogether; and in other social notes the 
written address of the sender is sometimes omitted and 
the date written out in words just below the signature 
and at the left of the page. 

The address should be written as in the form, but it is 
sometimes omitted in letters to relatives and intimate 
friends. In writing to a person, Mr., Master, Mrs., Miss, 
or other title should be properly used with the name in the 
address. In business letters to a firm or company, the 
firm or company name is often written without the prefix 
"Messrs." 

Formal styles of salutation include Sir, Dear Sir, My 



198 COMPOSITION 

dear Sir, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, Dear Madam, My dear 

Madam, Dear Mesdames, Dear Mr. , My dear 

Mr. , Dear Mrs. , My dear Miss , etc., etc. 

Custom sanctions the punctuation of the salutation with 
the colon, colon and dash, or comma and dash. 

Forms of complimentary close include Yours truly. 
Yours very truly, Very truly yours, Yours sincerely, 
Yours cordially, etc., etc. These forms are often preceded 
by the words " I am " or " I remain " written on the pre- 
ceding line at the end of the sentence that closes the body 
of the letter. 

The address, the salutation, the complimentary close, 
and the signature, as well as the heading, are all omitted 
in formal notes of invitation, acceptance, and regret. 



Write a letter to some author whose story or poems 
you have read. 

Tell him that some one gave you a copy of his 
book, or a volume of his poems, as a present. Was 
it your father? your mother? some other relative? 
your teacher ? or a friend ? Was it a Christmas or 
a birthday present ? 

Tell him which poem in the volume, or what part 
of the story, you like best. Why ? 

Thank him for the pleasure the book has given 
you. 

Remember all you have learned about letter-writ- 
ing in your language study. Be sure to paragraph, 
capitalize, and punctuate correctly. 

Read your letter in class. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. ^ 

It does n*t matter. It is n't true. There are three boys 
in the class. There are not three boys in the class. They 

1 To the Teacher : See last paragraph of suggestions on page 195. 



INFORMAL LETTERS 199 

don't wish to be beaten. They are not of that kind. Is he 
ready ? Is n't he ready ? Are n't you ready ? Does n't 
James get the answer ? He does n't seem to. Is n't it 
strange ? It is n't very hard. They are n't very hard. 

SECTION 2. INFOKMAL LETTERS. 

Here is a letter which Phillips Brooks wrote to his 
little niece. Phillips Brooks was a loved and ad- 
mired bishop of the Episcopal Church, a charming 
gentleman, and a lover of children. While travel- 
ing abroad, he wrote many letters to his nieces. 
There seem to have been three of them, Agnes, 
Gertrude, and " Toody," who must ha^e been the 
baby. 

Venice, August 13, 1882. 
Dear Gertie, — 

When the little children in Venice want 
to take a bath, they just go down to the front steps of 
the house and jump off, and swim about in the street. 
Yesterday I saw a nurse standing on the front steps, 
holding one end of a string, and the other end was tied to 
a little fellow who was swimming up the street. When he 
went too far, the nurse pulled the string and got her baby 
home again. Then I met another youngster, swimming in 
the street, whose mother had tied him to a post at the side 
of the door, so that when he tried to swim away to see 
another boy, who was tied to another door-post up the 
street, he could n't, and they had to sing out to one an- 
other over the water. 

Is not this a queer city ? You are always in danger of 
running over some of the people and drowning them, 
for you go about in a boat instead of a carriage, and use 
an oar instead of a horse. But it is very pretty; and the 
people, especially the children, are very bright, and gay, 
and handsome. When you are sitting in your room at 
night, you hear some music under your window, and look 
out, and there is a boat with a man with a fiddle, and a 



200 COMPOSITION 

woman with a voice, and they are serenading you. To be 
sure, they want some money when they are done, for 
everybody begs here, but they do it very prettily, and are 
full of fun. 

Tell Susie I did not see the queen this time. She was 
out of town. But ever so many noblemen and princes 
have sent to know how Toody was, and how she looked, 
and I have sent them all her love. 

There must be lots of pleasant things to do at Andover, 
and I think you must have had a beautiful summer there. 
Pretty soon now, you will go back to Boston. Do go into 
my house when you get there, and see if the doll and her 
baby are well and happy (but do not carry them off) ; and 
make the music-box play a tune, and remember 
Your affectionate uncle, 

Phillips. 

What part of a formal letter has been omitted in this 
letter ? Can you give a reason for including the address 
in all letters ? If the envelope in which the letter was 
mailed had been incorrectly or illegibly addressed it 
would have gone to the Dead Letter Office, where it would 
have been opened. Could it have been forwarded from 
there to the person for whom it was intended ? 

Is the writer's full name signed to this letter ? Why not ? 



Imagine that you are Gertie. Answer the delight- 
ful letter given above. Make up some good things 
to tell him about yourself and the other children, 
your work and play. 

Read your letter in class. 

SECTION 3. FRIENDLY LETTERS. 

Write a letter to a school f riend, or chum, who 
has gone to Quebec for the summer. Include in your 
letter one of the following incidents : ^ — 

1 In this and other exercises, when a choice of topics is suggested ; each 
pupil should select one, or the teacher may assign each topic to certain 
members of the class. 



TELEGRAM AND LETTER WRITING 201 

(a) Imagine that you have gone to the seashore or to a 
lake for the summer. While out boating one day, 
you were overtaken by a storm. The boat, which 
contained two boys and a girl, capsized. What 
happened ? Tell all the details. 

(b) If you prefer, imagine that you saw the accident 
from the shore. Tell how it looked to you, and 
how you felt to see your friends struggling to save 
themselves. 

(c) While out driving, you were overtaken by a terrific 
thunder-storm. Tell of your experiences and de- 
scribe the storm. 

Read your letter in class. 



In writing a friendly letter remember that : — 

1. Friends are interested in you, and the smallest 
details that concern you are interesting; 

2. The language you use should sound "just like you " 
in pleasant conversation; 

3. With your most intimate friends you cannot afford 
to be less than courteous; this will guide you to 
the use of a dignified salutation and complimentary 
close ; 

4. Every letter should be properly paragraphed and 
punctuated correctly. 

SECTION 4. TELEGRAM AND LETTER WRITING. 

Imagine that you are away from home, and that 
your leg was broken in a runaway accident. You 
telegraphed to your father what you thought neces- 
sary and kept it within ten w^ords. In the telegram 
you stated that a letter was following it. Your 
father telegraphed a reply. 

Write both telegrams and the letter you wrote 
telling how the accident happened. Read them in 
class. 



202 COMPOSITION 

In writing telegrams, remember that it is not necessary 
to use complete sentences. A telegram must be brief 
because the cost of sending it depends upon the number 
of words in its body. A message of ten words is charged 
for at a certain fixed rate, and an additional charge is 
made for each word in excess of ten. No charge is made 
for the address and signature. 

Make your telegrams say in the fewest possible words 
what you need to say. 

SECTION 5. BUSESTESS LETTERS. 

Write, in letter form, an order for three articles 
of merchandise that you need, or would like to have. 
Address the order to some large dealer in your own 
city, or in the city nearest to you. 

Suppose that when the goods arrive, one of the 
articles is not satisfactory. Write a letter stating 
that you have returned the article, and giving a 
definite reason for doing so. 

Read your letters in class. 



Remember that in a letter ordering goods : — 

1. The description of the goods must be accurate, so 
that the dealer will know exactly what you wish ; 

2. The directions for shipping should be definite and 
complete ; 

3. If money to pay for the goods is inclosed, the amount 
should be named in the body of the letter; 

4. Your name and address should be perfectly legible. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

I have six dollars ; how many have you ? Has he as 
many as I ? She has n't asked to go. She has n't been 
asked to go. Have n't you been there ? There have been 
four persons here. There has not been time. I have n't 
any paper. Are n't you ready yet ? He is n't going at all. 



LETTERS OF APPLICATION 203 

SECTION 6. BUSINESS LETTERS AND ADVERTISEMENTS. 

Imagine that you are running a business, — a 
store, a factory, a dressmaking establishment, or a 
restaurant. It has grown rapidly ; you need help. 
Write a twenty -word advertisement for insertion in 
the newspaper, stating wdiat you wish. Include in 
it a request that each applicant state his previous 
experience. ' 

Write a letter applying for the position referred 
to in the advertisement. 

Read your advertisement and your letter in class. 



In writing advertisements, remember that it is not 
necessary to use complete sentences. Advertisements, 
like telegrams, should be brief because they are charged 
for according to the number of words they contain, or 
the space they occupy when printed. 

Remember that your letter of application should be : — 

1. short; for the hurried man of business has no time 
to waste; 

2. frank; for the employer will wish to know your 
fitness for the position; 

3. well expressed; for you will be judged by the letter; 

4. in your best penmanship; for illegible or careless 
writing will be counted against you; 

5. courteous, dignified, and complete as to its heading, 
address, salutation, and complimentary close. 

SECTION 7. LETTERS OF APPLICATION AND RECOM- 
MENDATION. 

You have learned of a vacancy in a bank, in a 
corps of teachers, among the firemen on the nearest 
railway, or among the stenographers in a business 
office. You apply for the position by letter, inclos- 



204 COMPOSITION 

ing a letter of recommendation from the man that 
had employed you for the past three years. 
Write both letters. Read them in class. 



Remember what you have learned about writing letters 
of application. An employer will wish to know about 
your fitness for the position you desire; your education 
and training, your previous experience, and the wages 
for which you are willing to work. Such information 
should be given briefly and modestly. 

A letter that recommends yon for a position may be 
addressed to some one employer, or it may be without 
special address and intended for general use. Which 
of the two forms will you write ? Remember that an 
employer is likely to give more weight to a recom- 
mendation which is addressed to him personally. What 
should a good recommendation say about the person 
recommended ? Be sure that your letter says these 
things. 

SECTION 8. LETTERS OF ESTTRODUCTION. 

Write a letter to a friend in Boston, introducing a 
dear friend who is just going to that city to live. 
Make your letter so warm in its praise that your 
Boston friend will be delighted to do for his new 
acquaintance as much as he would do for you. 

Write a letter introducing some one to a business 
acquaintance of yours. Assume that the person 
who is introduced desires some information, cour- 
tesy, or favor from your business friend. In your 
letter of introduction, name the information or favor 
that is desired, and say that if it is given, or granted, 
you will consider it a personal favor to you. 

Write on a piece of paper the proper form of 
address on the envelope for each letter. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL 205 

The body of a letter of introduction usually begins: 

"This letter will introduce to you Mr. ." It usually 

closes with a statement that any kindness, or courtesy, 
shown to the person introduced will be regarded as a 
kindness, or courtesy, to the writer. A letter of introduc- 
tion is usually given to the person to be introduced and 
handed by him to the person to whom it is addressed. 

The envelope that contains a letter of introduction is 
usually left unsealed as a matter of courtesy to the person 

who uses it. The words, " Introducing Mr. ," are 

written on the face of the envelope, below and at the left 
of the address. This enables the receiver of the letter to 
learn the name of the person who hands it to him, without 
waiting to open and read the letter. 

SECTION 9. WRITTEN STORY AND DESCRIPTION PROM 
PICTURE STUDY. 

(a) On page 207 is a picture of an unpleasant 
situation. What had occurred in the afternoon to 
make it necessary to keep the boy in ? Do you 
think the old master is cruel ? Or is he just trying 
to look stern to frighten the lad ? What did he do 
with the boy ? Write the whole story as you imagine 
it happened. 

(b) Write a description of the scene in the picture. 
It may help you to commence it something like 
this : — 

I had been visiting at my uncle's; and when Charles 
and James were at school, I had no one to play wdth. 
One day I w^aited and waited for them to come from 
school, but they did not come. So I made up my mind 
to go to meet them, expecting to find them somewhere 
playing. But . . . 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

The concert began at eight o'clock. I have begun to 
study music. I gave my tickets to George. She laid her 



206 COMPOSITION 

hand on his shoulder. The vase lay on the floor broken. 
Lie on the couch and rest. We ran to the fire. Joe swam 
across the lake. The tardy bell has rung. Books have 
been laid away. The boys said you did it. James says he 
saw you. 

SECTION 10. PUNCTUATION. 

You have learned to use a period after a statement ; 
a question mark after a question ; and an exclama- 
tion mark after an exclamation. You probably find 
little trouble in using these marks of punctuation ; the 
comma and the semicolon are not so easy to use cor- 
rectly. One suggestion may be a help to you. 

Commas are used to keep words together that be- 
long together ; and to separate words that belong 
apart. One can almost imagine these little marks of 
punctuation to be like pieces of string used to tie up 
small bundles of radishes or onions in the market. 
They hold together small groups of words that belong 
in a bundle ; and at the same time they separate 
these gronps from other groups with which they 
might become mixed. Here is a very simple sen- 
tence in which there are two groups of words which 
should be separated from each other, while the words 
of each group should be tied together. " The door 
stood ajar and the Prince went in." Insert a 
comma after " ajar," and observe how distinct it 
makes each unit in the sentence. Again, take this 
sentence : " There fast asleep were some soldiers with 
swords at their side." It contains two little groups 
of words that need to be separated from the rest of 
the sentence, while the words of each little group 
should be bound closer together. Notice how nicely 
this is done by the use of commas : " There, fast 
asleep, were some soldiers, with swords at their side." 




KEPT IN 



208 COMPOSITION 

This theory of the use of commas may be stated as 
a general principle, or rule, as follows : The words 
in a closely related group should be bound together, 
and separated from the rest of the sentence, by 
commas. Nearly all the special rules for the use of 
commas are derived from this one rule. 

Sometimes a sentence contains large or important 
groups of words ; and these large groups may be 
made up of smaller groups that are separated from 
each other by commas. In such sentences, we use a 
semicolon to separate the large or important groups. 
The semicolon may be thought of as being a stronger 
comma, or "string." You will not need to use it 
very often. Here is a sentence in which the use of 
the semicolon is necessary to separate the two large 
groups of words : " He then gave her an account of 
the strange way in which he had come, and said that 
he would now mount his horse and go back to Persia ; 
for his royal father must be in great pain, not know- 
ing where his son might be." Notice that each of 
the two large groups of words is made up of two 
smaller groups separated by a comma. 

On pages 259 and 260, you will find a list of 
rules for the use of punctuation marks and capital 
letters. Study those rules carefully. You will need 
to refer to them frequently while preparing the les- 
sons that follow. 



Give the rule for the use of each period and 
comma in the following paragraphs : — 

The door stood ajar, and the Prince went in. He found 
himself in a hall lighted by a dim lamp. There, fast 
asleep, were some soldiers, with swords by their side. 
They were there to guard some one, and, as another door 



PUNCTUATION OF QUOTATIONS 209 

stood open, the Prince passed through into the inner room. 
There he saw lying on a couch a most beautiful woman, 
asleep, and, about her, also asleep, were her maids. 

The Prince knelt by the side of the couch and gazed at 
the fair creature. Then he gently twitched at her sleeve, 
and she awoke. Her eyes fell on the Prince kneeling there, 
but she showed no fear; for, as soon as her eyes opened, 
he said : — 

SECTION 11. PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 

The paragraphs that follow are printed without 
capital letters or punctuation marks. Copy them, 
using capital letters and punctuation marks as re- 
quired by the rules on pages 259 and 260 : — 

beautiful princess i am the prince of pei^ia i have 
come here by a very strange way and i ask you to protect 
me i do not know where i am but i know no harm can 
come to me when i see before me so fair a princess 

you are in the kingdom of bengal she replied and i am 
the daughter of the king i am living in my own palace in 
the country you may be sure that no harm will come to 
you if you have come from persia you have come a long 
way and must be hungry and tired i am very curious to 
know how you came but first you shall have food and 
sleep 

then the princess called her maids and they awoke and 
wondered much at what they saw at the command of the 
princess they led the prince into the hall where they gave 
him food and drink then they led him to a room where he 
could sleep and left him 

SECTION 12. PUNCTUATION OF QUOTATIONS. 

Copy and punctuate the paragraphs that follow. 
Recall all you have learned about the punctuation of 
quoted conversation, and consult the rules at the end 
of this book, if necessary. Notice that a new para- 
graph begins whenever the speaker changes. 



210 COMPOSITION 

Ma'am said the little boy what is it that sings 

There is no singing said she 

Yes cried the little fellow hear it Queek queek queek 
queek 

My friend and the woman both listened but they could 
hear nothing unless it was the song of the crickets fre- 
quent guests in bakers houses 

It is a little bird said the dear little fellow or perhaps 
the bread sings when it bakes as apples do 

No indeed little goosey said the bakers wife those are 
crickets that sing in the bakehouse because we are lighting 
the oven and they like to see the fire 

Crickets said the child are they really crickets 

Yes to be sure said she good-humoredly The childs 
face lighted up 

Ma'am said he blushing at the boldness of his request 
I would like it very much if you would give me a cricket 

A cricket said the bakers wife smiling what in the world 
would you do with a cricket my little friend I would 
gladly give you all there are in the house to get rid of them 
they run about so 

O ma'am give me one only one if you please said the 
child clasping his little thin hands under the big loaf 
They say that crickets bring good luck into houses and 
perhaps if we had one at home mother who has so much 
trouble would n't cry any more 

SECTION 13. COMPOSITION WEITING. 

Begin where the conversation ends in Section 12, 
and go on with the story to the end, as you think 
it should be. The name of the story is, " The 
Crickets Brought Good Fortune." What kind of 
an ending will you have to the story ? 

Remember to inclose all quoted conversation in 
quotation marks. Be careful to use punctuation 
marks and capital letters as required by the rules 
you have learned. 



PUNCTUATION 211 

SECTION 14. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

Thou chief star! 
Centre of many stars! which mak'st our earth 
Endurable, and temperest the hues 
And hearts of all who walk within thy rays! 

Byron. 

Write about "The Sun," as you have learned 
about it in your study of geography. Arrange your 
thoughts under the three topics given below and so 
make three paragraphs. Study the suggestions 
under each topic, before you write. 

1. The sun is the centre of the solar system. 

What comprise the solar system ? How far from the 
sun to the nearest planet ? to the farthest ? to the earth ? 
To get a good idea of the distance from the sun to the 
earth, compute how long it would take a train running 
forty miles an hour to go to the sun. 

2. The size of the sun. 

Give its diameter; then, to get a good idea of how^ big 
it is, suppose the centre of the sun to be placed on the 
centre of the earth, would the surface of the sun be out 
as far as the moon is ? Write out both the illustrations 
fully. 

3. Uses of the sun. 

Tell this by describing what would happen if the sun 
were taken away. 

SECTION 15. PUNCTUATION. 

The following paragraphs are printed without 
punctuation marks and without capital letters. Write 
them, wdth proper capitals and punctuation marks. 
Be sure that you indicate correctly the beginning 
and end of each sentence. 

let us reflect for a moment upon the wonderful force 



212 COMPOSITION 

which the sun must send forth to bend out of their courses 
into circular orbits such a number of planets some of 
them more than a thousand times larger than the earth 
were a ship of war under full sail we can easily imagine 
what a force it would require to turn her from her course 
by a rope attached to her bow especially were it required 
that the force remain stationary and the ship be so held 
as to be made to go round the force as round a centre 

somewhat similar to this but on a much grander scale 
is the action which is exerted on the earth in its journey 
round the sun by an invisible influence which is called 
gravitation the sun turns all the planets out of their course 
and bends them into a circular orbit round himself though 
they are all many million times more ponderous than the 
ship and are moving many thousand times more swiftly. 

SECTION 16. STUDY OF POEM. 

THE GIFT OF TRITEMIUS. 

Tritemius of Herbipolis, one day, 

While kneeling at the altar's foot to pray 

Alone with God, as was his pious choice, 

Heard from without a miserable voice, 

A sound which seemed of all sad things to tell, 

As of a lost soul crying out of hell. 

Thereat the Abbot paused; the chain whereby 
His thoughts went upward broken by that cry; 
And, looking from the casement, saw below 
A wretched woman, with gray hair a-flow. 
And withered hands held up to him, who cried 
For alms as one who might not be denied. 

She cried, " For the dear love of Him who gave 
His life for ours, my child from bondage save, — 
My beautiful, brave first-born, chained with slaves 
In the Moor's galley, where the sun-smit waves 
Lap the white walls of Tunis ! " — " What I can 
I give," Tritemius said, "my prayers." — "O man 



STUDY OF POEM 213 

Of God!" she cried, for grief had made her bold, 
"Mock me not thus; I ask not prayers, but gold. 
Words will not serve me, alms alone suffice; 
Even while I speak perchance my first-born dies." 

" Woman ! " Tritemius answered, " from our door 

None go unfed, hence are we always poor; 

A single soldo is our only store. 

Thou hast our prayers ; — what can we give thee more ? " 

"Give me," she said, "the silver candlesticks 
On either side of the great crucifix. 
God well may spare them on His errands sped, 
Or He can give you golden ones instead." 

Then spake Tritemius, "Even as thy word, 

Woman, so be it! (Our most gracious Lord, 

Who loveth mercy more than sacrifice, 

Pardon me if a human soul I prize 

Above the gifts upon his altar piled!) 

Take what thou askest, and redeem thy child." 

But his hand trembled as the holy alms 
He placed within the beggar's eager palms; 
And as she vanished down the linden shade, 
He bowed his head and for forgiveness prayed. 

So the day passed, and when the twilight came 
He woke to find the chapel all aflame. 
And, dumb with grateful wonder, to behold 
Upon the altar candlesticks of gold ! 

John Greenleaf Whittier. 

If Mr. Whittier had asked you to name the poem for 
him, what would you have called it ? Why ? If your 
father had given almost everything he had that you might 
be well and strong again, do you think that, if there were 
no other way, he would sell his home to release you from 
pain ? Are there, then, many Tritemius's around us ? 

Select the words that you would not have used in 
telling this story to your mother. Are the words here 



214 COMPOSITION 

prettier than those you would have used ? What passages 
do you Hke best in the poem ? 

Give the reasons for the marks of punctuation in 
the second stanza. 
Memorize the poem. 

SECTION 17. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

How beautiful is night! 
A dewy freshness fills the silent air; 
No mist obscures; nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain, 

Breaks the serene of heaven. 
In full-orbed glory, yonder moon divine 
Rolls through the dark blue depths; 

Beneath her steady ray 
The desert circle spreads 
Like the round ocean, girdled with the sky. 
How beautiful is night! 

SOUTHEY. 

(a) THE MOON. 

1. Describe a moonlight evening. 

Begin the paragraph by telling where you were and 
why you noticed that particular evening. Then in the last 
sentence say something like this: "The glorious night 
made me think of the source of this beauty." 

2. The size of the moon; and its distance from the 
earth. 

Compare it with the earth as to size. How large does 
it look to you ? How does its distance from the earth 
compare with the distance of the sun from the earth ? 

3. How the moon gives light. 

Is it, like the sun, a self-shining body ? 

4. The uses of the moon to us. 

(b) A VISIT TO THE MOON. 

1. The Journey. 

2. The Arrival. 



COMPOSITION WRITING 215 

How did you land ? What kind of people ^Yere there 
to meet you ? How did they greet you ? 

3. Visit to the Man in the Moon. 

4. What terrible incident awakened you from your 
dream ? 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

The cars move slowly. Clara sings very sweetly. The 
lemonade seems sweet. Her dress fits nicely. It looks well 
on her. The chain looks nice. The bread tastes good. 
He swims well. The flowers look beautiful; they smell 
sweet. 

SECTION 18. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

And fast by, hanging in a golden chain, 
This pendent world, in bigness as a star 
Of smallest magnitude, close by the moon. 

Milton. 

THE EARTH. 

Write three paragraphs about the earth, using the 
following topics : — 

1. The position of the earth in the solar system; its 
distance from the sun; its size. 

2. Appearance of the earth from the moon. 

Imagine that you live upon the moon, and that you 
have telescopes as powerful as those used on the earth. 
Could you tell water from land ? Could you see the 
mountain ranges ? What difference could you observe 
between the part near the equator and the part near the 
poles .^ 

3. Imagine that you watch the earth as it turns halfway 
round, and describe what you see. 

Suppose that your description begins either at New 
York, or at Tokio. Do not forget which way the earth 
turns. Describe only the important bodies of land and 
water that you could see from the moon with a large tele- 
scope, giving their position, shape, and relative size. 



216 COMPOSITION 

SECTION 19. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

(a) If you have read Dickens's " A Christmas 
Carol/' you know the character of Scrooge. Imagine 
that you and your mother were lost one March day 
in a London fog. Seeing a dim light in an office, 
you stepped in to inquire your way back to your 
home. You found that the office was Scrooge's. 
Write the story of your imaginary adventure, includ- 
ing the conversation you had with Scrooge. 

Be very careful about the paragraphs and the 
punctuation marks. 

(b) Possibly you have heard or read of some man 
that reminds you of Scrooge, — only not so stingy 
and mean. Write some true or imagined story about 
him. 

SECTION 20. STUDY OF POEM. 
JUNE.l 

And what is so rare as a day in June ? 

Then, if ever, come perfect days; 
Then Heaven tries earth if it be in tune. 

And over it softly her warm ear lays; 
Whether we look or whether we Ksten, 
We hear Kf e murmur, or see it ghsten ; 
Every clod feels a stir of might, 

An instinct within it that reaches and towers, 
And groping blindly above it for light, 

Climbs to a soul in grass and flowers; 
The flush of life may well be seen 

Thrilling back over hills and valleys; 
The cowslip startles in meadows green. 

The buttercup catches the sun in its chalice. 
And there 's never a leaf nor a blade too mean 

To be some happy creature's palace; 
The little bird sits at his door in the sun, 

Atilt like a blossom among the leaves, 

1 From The Vision of Sir Launfal. 



STUDY OF POEM 217 

And lets his illumined being o'errun 

With the deluge of summer it receives; 
His mate feels the eggs beneath her wings, 
And the heart in her dumb breast flutters and sings; 
He sings to the wide world, and she to her nest, — 
In the nice ear of Nature which song is the best ? 

Now is the high-tide of the year, 

And whatever of life hath ebbed away 
Comes flooding back with a ripply cheer, 

Into every bare inlet and creek and bay; 
Now the heart is so full that a drop overfills it, 
We are happy now because God wills it; 
No matter how barren the past may have been, 
'T is enough for us now that the leaves are green; 
We sit in the warm shade and feel right well 
How the sap creeps up and the blossoms swell; 
We may shut our eyes, but we cannot help knowing 
That skies are clear and grass is growing; 
The breeze comes whispering in our ear. 
That dandelions are blossoming near. 

That maize has sprouted, that streams are flowing, 
That the river is bluer than the sky. 
That the robin is plastering his house hard by; 
And if the breeze kept the good news back, 
For other couriers we should not lack; 

We could guess it all by yon heifer's lowing, — 
And hark! how clear bold chanticleer. 
Warmed with the new wine of the year. 

Tells all in his lusty crowing! 

James Russell Lowell. 

What lines in the poem seem to you especially beauti- 
ful ? Did you find ten words that seemed to go straight to 
the mark ? What are they ? Remember that if they were 
good w^ords for Lowell to use, they are good for you to 
add to your vocabulary. Use them in the next lesson. 

By the way this is written, do you know whether 
Lowell loved out-of-doors ? Do you think he learned 
about these things when a boy ? or did he wait until he 



218 COMPOSITION 

was a man to find them out ? Pick out the beautiful 
things we can see in the spring. He says, " We may shut 
our eyes, but we cannot help knowing" some things. 
What are they ? What lines tell you that Lowell almost 
thought that flowers had souls just like people ? Here is a 
stanza from another poem by Lowell: — 

Violet! sweet violet! 
Thine eyes are full of tears; 
Are they wet 
Even yet 
With the thought of other years ? 
Or with gladness are they full, 

For the night so beautiful, 
And longing for those far-off spheres ? 

Memorize the description of June in Lowell's 
"The Vision of Sir Laimfal/' as given above. 

SECTION 21. COMPOSITION WKITING. 

(a) What jnonth in the year do you like best ? 
Write a short description of it. Tell about the 
weather and other things that make the month 
delightful to you. Tell what you can see and hear 
and do at that time of the year. 

(b) Write a description of your favorite flower. Do 
not give too many details about how the flower looks ; 
but try to make the reader feel as much love for the 
flower as you do. Before you write, read Bryant's 
"To the Fringed Gentian/' Wordsworth's "The 
Daffodils," and any other poems you know that tell 
about a flower. 

"(c) Write about your dog, cat, canary, rabbit, 
squirrel, — the pet you have Hked most. 

SECTION 22. PARAGRAPHING AND PUNCTUATION. 

Write the fable that follows, paragraphing and 
punctuating it correctly. Remember that a new 



COMPOSITION WRITING 219 

paragraph should begin whenever the speaker 
chancres in a conversation. 

An ox grazing in a meadow chanced to set his foot on 
a young frog and crushed him to death His brothers 
and sisters who were playing near at once ran to tell their 
mother what had happened The monster that did it 
mother was such a size said they The mother who was a 
vain old thing thought that she could easily make herself 
as large Was it as big as this she asked blowing and puf- 
fing herself out Oh mother much bigger than that replied 
the young frogs As this then cried she puffing and blowing 
again with all her might Nay mother said they if you were 
to try till you burst yourself you would never be so big 
The silly old frog tried to puff herself out still more and 
burst herself indeed 

Add a short paragraph telling what this fable 
teaches. 

SECTION 23. COMPOSITION WKITING. 

If you do not know the characters of Scrooge and Sir 
Launfal, ask your teacher or some one else to read to you 
extracts from Dickens's "A Christmas Carol" and 
Lowell's "Vision of Sir Launfal," telling how Sir Launfal 
treated the leper who met him at the castle gate, and how 
Scrooge refused to give anything to the poor when the 
gentlemen called on him just before Christmas. 

Why did Scrooge refuse to help the poor ? Was it really 
generous of Sir Launfal to fling a coin to the leper as he 
passed him by ? Did he show the same spirit shown by 
Scrooge ? Which of the two do you like less ? What had 
Sir Launfal vowed to do when he became a knight ? 

(a) Write a brief comparison of Scrooge and Sir 
Launfal. 

(b) Write briefly on this topic : The poor man 
often is more generous than the rich man, although 
he may not give so much. 



220 COMPOSITION 

(c) Write a short story telling of some generous 
act done by a poor person. 

SECTION 24. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day 
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-tops. 

Shakespeare. 

(a) Write three paragraphs on the subject, Day 
and Night. 

1. The Causes of Day and Night. 

2. Changes in the Length of the Day. 

3. The Use of the Change from Day to Night. 
Why not all day, or all night ? 

(b) Imagine that you have visited Norway and 
write a letter to some friend, telling about the mid- 
night sun. 

(c) Write about some game that you can play 
best just as it is growing dark. 

SECTION 25. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

How beautiful is the rain! 

After the dust and heat, 

In the broad and fiery street. 

In the narrow lane, 

How beautiful is the rain! 

Longfellow. 

(a) Write three paragraphs on the subject, Rain. 

1. How are clouds formed? Illustrate by the steam 
from boiling water. 

2. Why does it rain? Illustrate by a sponge. 

3. Uses of rain. Give three uses in this paragraph. 

(b) Write upon this topic : I remember so well 
the joy of being allowed to play barefoot in the road 
after a heavy shower. 



USE OF COMPOUND SENTENCES 221 

From the neighboring school 

Come the boys, 
With more than wonted noise 

And commotion; 
And down the wet streets 
Sail their mimic fleets, 
Till the treacherous pool 
Ingulfs them in its whirling 
And turbulent ocean. 

Longfellow. 

(c) Write of the pleasure you once had one June 
afternoon Avatching the shadows of the clouds chase 
one another across the hillside. 

SECTION 26. USE OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Eead the fable that follows. Notice that all the 
sentences are short and simple. Observe that the 
constant use of short sentences becomes monotonous 
and separates ideas that are closely related. 

Jupiter made Man. He gave him two wallets. One of 
the wallets was to hold his neighbor's faults. The other 
was to hold his own faults. Jupiter threw them over the 
Man's shoulder. One hung in front. The other hung 
behind. 

The Man kept the one in front for his neighbor's faults. 
He kept the one behind for his own faults. The first was 
always right under his nose. It took some pains to see the 
other. The first was full to bursting. The other hung flat 
and useless at his back. 

Re-write the fable, combining two or more of the 
sentences in one, wherever you think it will improve 
the composition to do so. In combining the sen- 
tences, use introductory and connecting words when- 
ever they are required to express the thought fully, 
or to make the sentences read smoothly. 



222 COMPOSITION 

Add a short paragraph telling what you think the 
fable teaches. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

May I go to the store ? You may at recess. I did my 
work before I came to school. Mary swung higher than 
you. Let go of the rope, please. The poor boy lay helpless 
by the roadside. Her fingers were frozen. Set the kettle 
over the blaze. She sat on the piazza. He came into the 
office yesterday. Who taught you how to play tennis ? 
Our doorbell does n't ring. 

SECTION 27. ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES, PARA- 
GRAPHING, PUNCTUATION, AND COMPOSITION 
A^RITING. 

As soon as the sea had washed by, all hands sprang up 
out of the forecastle to see what had become of the ship. 
When a few moments had passed, the cook and old Bill 
crawled out from under the galley. If the galley had not 
rested against the bulwarks, it would have broken some 
of their bones. When the water had run off, we picked the 
sheep up, and put them in the long-boat. But if the ship 
had not had uncommonly high bulwarks and rail, every- 
thing must have been washed overboard, not excepting 
old Bill and the cook. 

The paragraph just above is not good, because 
each sentence begins with a dependent clause. It is 
given below with only two sentences changed ; but 
how much better it is ! In your own composition 
writing, seek for variety in the form and length of 
sentences. Do not have them all just alike. 

As soon as the sea had washed by, all hands sprang 
out of the forecastle to see what had become of the ship; 
and in a few moments the cook and old Bill crawled out 
from under the galley. Fortunately, it rested against the 
bulwarks, or it would have broken some of their bones. 



COMPOSITION WRITING 223 

When the water ran off, we picked the sheep up and put 
them in the long-boat; but had not our ship had uncom- 
monly high bulwarks and rail, everything must have been 
washed overboard, not excepting old Bill and the cook. 

In the first paragraph below, the last two sen- 
tences are as Avritten by the author, Kenneth Gra- 
hame. Re-write the other sentences, to be as you 
think the author Avrote them. Separate into proper 
paragraphs the sentences of the group that follows 
the first paragraph, and punctuate them correctly. 

After I had been engaged in chasing Farmer Larkin's 
calves — his special pride — round the field, just to show 
him we had n't forgotten him, I was returning through 
the kitchen garden with a conscience at peace with all 
men. When I happened upon Edward, he was grubbing 
for worms. When Edward put the worms into his hat, we 
strolled along together, discussing high matters of state. 
As we reached the tool-shed, strange noises arrested our 
steps. When we looked in, we perceived Harold, alone, 
rapt, absorbed, immersed in the special game of the 
moment. He was squatting in an old pig-trough that had 
been brought in to be tinkered; and as he rhapsodized, 
anon he waved a shovel over his head, anon dug it into the 
ground with the action of those who would urge Canadian 
canoes. Edward strode in upon him. 

What rot are you playing at now he demanded sternly 
Harold flushed up but stuck to his pig-trough like a man 
I m Jason he replied defiantly and this is the argo The 
other fellows are here too only you can t see them and 
we re going through the Hellespont so don t come bother- 
ing round and once more he plied the wine-dark sea 
Edward kicked the pig-trough contemptuously Pretty 
sort of argo you ve got said he Harold began to get 
annoyed I can t help it he replied it s the best sort of argo 
I can manage and it s all right if you pretend enough but 
you never pretend one bit Edward reflected Look here 
he said presently why should n t we get hold of Farmer 



224 COMPOSITION 

Larkin's boat and go away up the river in a real argo 
and look for Medea and the golden fleece and every- 
thing And 1 11 tell you what I don t mind your being Ja- 
son as you thought of it first. 

Finish the story. Did the boys ask to go ? Did 
they go ? Did they ask Farmer Larkin for his boat ? 
Did anything happen ? Did the folks at home find 
it out? 

SECTION 28. COMPOSITION -WRITING. 

True worth is in being, not seeming y — 
In doing each day that goes by 
Some little good — not in the dreaming 
Of great things to do by and by. 

Alice Gary. 

Think of Sir Launfal again. Where was he when 
he helped the poor beggar, — abroad in a far land 
or at home ? Was it a great deed that gave him the 
sight of the holy grail ? And did Scrooge have to 
go far to find some one to help? 

Write a paragraph upon this topic : — 

The greatest joy and blessing comes from doing some 
little kindness at home. 

Or, write a story that illustrates it. 

SECTION 29. COMPOSITION -WRITINa 

A little stream came tumbling from the height, 

And struggling into ocean as it might. 

Its bounding crystal frolick'd in the ray, 

And gushed from cliff to crag with saltless spray. 

Byron. 

(a) Suppose a drop of water had traveled from 
its clear spring to the distant ocean, and had told 
you what it saw on this long journey. Write the 
story as you imagine it was told to you. Use as a 
title, " The Story of a Drop of Water." 



STUDY OF POEM 225 

(b) Write upon the subject, " The Blessings of 
Rivers." 

1. Transportation. 

2. Power. 

3. Irrigation. 

4. Beauty and pleasure. 

"The river knows the way to the sea; 
Without a pilot it runs and falls, 
Blessing all lands with its charity." 

SECTION 30. STUDY OF POEM AND COMPOSITION 
WRITING. 

GOD BLESS US EVERY ONE.i 

"God bless us every one!" prayed Tiny Tim, 
Crippled, and dwarfed of body, yet so tall 
Of soul, we tiptoe earth to look on him, 
High towering over all. 

He loved the loveless world, nor dreamed indeed 

That it, at best, could give to him, the while, 
But pitying glances,, when his only need 
Was but a cheery smile. 

And thus he prayed, "God bless us every one!" — 

Enfolding all the creeds within the span 
Of his child-heart; and so, despising none, 
Was nearer saint than man. 

I like to fancy God, in Paradise, 

Lifting a finger o'er the rhythmic swing 
Of chiming harp and song, with eager eyes 
Turned earthward, listening — 

The Anthem stilled — the Angels leaning there 

Above the golden walls — the morning sun 
Of Christmas bursting flower-like with the prayer, 
• " God bless us every one ! " 

James Whitcomb Riley. 

1 From A Book of Joyous Children, by J. W. Riley. Copyright, 1902, 
and published by Chas. Sciibner's Sons. 



226 COMPOSITION 

In " A Christmas Carol," did Tiny Tim do anything 
that made his brothers and sisters love him ? Do you 
think it was just because he was a cripple that they 
loved him ? Is it possible that his cruel suffering helped 
to make him sweet and lovable ? 

(a) Write a short essay on this topic : — 

It has done me good to read " A Christmas Carol." 

Think how many things you have learned from the 
selection, and make as many paragraphs as you have divi- 
sions you wish to talk about. 

(b) Or upon this topic : — 

How much sweeter life would be if we had the spirit of 
Tiny Tim! 

(c) Or this : — 

How I wish I could write a story like " A Christmas 
Carol"! I would . . . 

SECTION 31. STUDY OF PARAGKAPHS. 

Just below are the first sentences of two selected 
paragraphs. Read them thoughtfully. 

1. It is the Indian summer. 

2. In fact, the cow is the true pathfinder and path- 
maker. 

As you studied each sentence, did you think what the 
rest of the paragraph might be ? At what time of the year 
does *' Indian summer " come ? What sights and sounds 
do thoughts of it bring to your mind ? Can you give any 
reasons why the cow should be called "the true path- 
finder and pathmaker " ? Discuss the two sentences in 
class, and tell all that they suggest to you. 

In some of the preceding lessons, a single sentence 
has been given you to write upon. Each of those 
sentences contained the topic, or main thought, of 
the paragraph you wrote. So each of the two sen- 



STUDY OF PARAGRAPHS 227 

tences above contains, or expresses, the main thought 
of the paragraph to which it belongs. Such a sen- 
tence is called the topic sentence of its paragraph. 

Read and study the two paragraphs that follow. 
Ask yourself what each sentence tells about. Does 
it add something to the thought expressed by the 
topic sentence ? Are there any sentences that could 
be cut out because they do not tell something about 
the topic of the paragraph? ^ 

1. It is the Indian summer. The rising sun blazes 
through the misty air like a conflagration. A yellowish, 
smoky haze fills the atmosphere, 

And a filmy mist 
Lies like a silver lining on the sky. 

The wind is soft and low. It wafts to us the odor of 
forest leaves, that hang wilted on the dripping branches, 
or drop into the stream. Their gorgeous tints are gone, 
as if the autumnal rains had washed them out. Orange, 
yellow, and*scarlet, all are changed to one melancholy 
russet hue. The birds, too, have taken wing, and have left 
their roofless dwellings. Not the whistle of a robin, not the 
twitter of an eaves-dropping swallow, not the carol of one 
sweet, familiar voice. All gone. Only the dismal cawing 
of a crow, as he sits and curses that the harvest is over; 
or the chit-chat of an idle squirrel, the noisy denizen of a 
hollow tree, the mendicant friar of a large parish, the 
absolute monarch of a dozen acorns. Longfellow. 

2. In fact, the cow is the true pathfinder and path- 
maker. She has the easy and deHberate movement that 
insures an easy and a safe way. Follow her trail through 
the woods, and you have the best, if not the shortest 
course. How she beats down the brush and briers and 
wears away even the roots of the trees! A herd of cows 
left to themselves fall naturally into single file, and a hun- 
dred or more of hoofs are not long in smoothing: and com- 
pacting almost any surface. Burroughs. 



228 COMPOSITION 

Look in your reading-book or history, and count 
the lines in each paragraph of some one prose selec- 
tion or lesson. About how many words are there 
in a line? About how many w^ords do the para- 
graphs average ? How many words in the longest 
paragraph? in the shortest? What conclusions do 
you draw about the length of paragraphs ? 

Look at the paragraphs in some story you have 
reid in school. Can you find a topic sentence in each 
of these paragraphs which narrates, or tells a story ? 
Does each paragraph treat of just one part of the 
story? What about the length of these paragraphs? 

The results of jour study may be summed up in 
the directions, or principles, that follow. Study them 
carefully ; they will help you to write good para- 
graphs. 

1. Put into each paragraph the thoughts you have 
about the topic of the paragraph. 

2. Keep out of a paragraph all thoughts, that do not 
directly discuss the topic of the paragraph. 

3. Make a paragraph as long as it needs to be to tell 
what you wish to say about the topic, whether it be 
twenty words or five hundred. 

4. At or near the beginning of most paragraphs that 
explain or describe, and of some that narrate, there 
should be a topic sentence. 

5. Think out how many topics you will divide your 
subject into. Make as many paragraphs as there are 
topics in your outline. 

6. Always use an outline when you write more than one 
paragraph. 

SECTION 32. PARAGRAPH WRITING. 

Write a paragraph of about seventy-five words 
using one of the following sentences as a topic 
sentencCc 



PARAGRAPH WRITING 229 

(a) It must have taken great courage to sail west into 
an unknown sea, as Columbus did. 

(b) I have always thought that spring (or summer, or 
auttunn, or winter) is the most delightful time of 
year. (Tell why.) 

(c) If a man wishes to influence young people, he must 
practice what he preaches. 

(d) The men who are doing the world's work today — 
our best judges, our engineers, our managers of 
great enterprises, indeed the first men in all lines 
of action — have, as a rule, come from the farm. 
(Go on and tell why this is so.) 

IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

It was I who spoke. Jane and I are going to the Fair. 
I wish I were he. We girls will decorate the room. May 
George and I take the book ? Loan it to George and me. 
That is he, is n't it ? Let Ruth and me play. Between you 
and me, we shall do it. It was impossible for James and 
me to work it. It is she ; he does n't see her. It is such as 
they who succeed. There shall be no dispute between 
you and me. It is he who sits between you and me. 

SECTION 33. PARAGRAPH WRiriNG. 

Write a paragraph on one of the following topic 
sentences. Remember that sentences should not all 
be formed alike ; nor should they be of the same 
leno^th. 

(a) It seems to me that the Indians have not always 
been treated fairly by our government. 

(b) I intend to learn to do something, so that if it 
should be necessary, I can earn my own living. 

(c) Football is a good game. (It teaches . . . etc.) 

(d) Cooking schools have proved their great value. 
(Why?) 



230 COMPOSITION 

SECTION 34. STUDY OF POEM. 

COLUMBUS. 

St. Stephen's cloistered hall was proud 

In learning's pomp that day, 

For there a robed and stately crowd 

Pressed on in long array. 

A mariner with simple chart 

Confronts that conclave high, 

While strong ambition stirs his heart, 

And burning thoughts of wonder part 

From lip and sparkling eye. 

Courage, thou Genoese! Old Time 

Thy splendid dream shall crown; 

Yon Western hemisphere sublime. 

Where unshorn forests frown. 

The awful Andes' cloud-wrapt brow, 

The Indian hunter's bow. 

Bold streams untamed by helm or prow, 

And rocks of gold and diamonds, thou 

To thankless Spain shalt show. 

Courage, World-finder! Thou hast need! 

In Fate's unfolding scroll. 

Dark woes and ingrate wrongs I read, 

That wrack the noble soul. 

On! on! Creation's secrets probe. 

Then drink thy cup of scorn. 

And wrapt in fallen Caesar's robe. 

Sleep like that master of the globe. 

All glorious, — yet forlorn. 

Lydia Huntley Sigourney. 

Memorize this poem, and read or recite the poem 
on Columbus by Joaquin Miller.^ 

1 This poem is printed in Book I of the Wehster-Cooley Two-Bom 
Course in Language^ Grammar, and Composition. It is also printed in 
many collections of songs and patriotic poems. 



PAKAGHAPH WRITING. 231 

SECTION 35. ESSAY "WRITING. 

Write an essay of not less than five paragraphs, 
using the subject and outline here given. Before 
you write, review all you have learned about Colum- 
bus in your study of history. 

COLUMBUS. 

1. The difficulty he met in getting help to carry out his 
plans. 

Why did he have trouble ? Would he today under 
like conditions ? 

2. Preparations for the first voyage. 

3. The first voyage. Its discouragements, dangers, and 
results. 

4. His other voyages and discoveries. 

5. The reward he received for his great work. 

Did he receive the recognition and reward which 
he had earned ? Why not ? What were the cir- 
cumstances of his later life, and of his death ? 

SECTION 36. PARAGRAPH ARRANGEMENT AND PUNCTUA- 
TION. PARAGRAPH WRITING. 

Divide the following selection into paragraphs, 
and punctuate it correctly. Remember that : — 

1. a paragraph is composed of the thoughts about one 
topic ; 

2. paragraphs are not all of the same length; 

3. in conversation, a new paragraph begins when the 
speaker changes, 

THE MICE IN COUNCIL. 

A certain cat that lived in a large country-house was 
so vigilant and active that the mice finding their numbers 
grievously thinned held a council with closed doors to con- 
sider what they had best do ]Many plans had been started 
and dismissed when a young mouse rising and catching 
the eye of the president said that he had a proposal to 



232 COMPOSITION 

make that he was sure must meet with the approval of all 
If said he the cat wore around her neck a little bell every 
step she took would make it tinkle then ever forewarned 
of her approach we should have time to reach our holes 
By this simple means we should live in safety and defy her 
power The speaker resumed his seat with a complacent 
air and a murmur of applause arose from the audience 
An old gray mouse with a merry twinkle in his eye now 
got up and said that the plan of the last speaker was an 
admirable one but he feared it had one drawback My 
young friend has not told us said he who is to put the bell 
on the cat 



Write a paragraph on one of the topic sentences 
that follow: — 

(a) It is easy to think about doing brave deeds, but it 
is not so easy to do them. 

(b) I never read the story of Columbus without saying 
to myself : I '11 never give up ! 

(c) Wise men may sneer and fools may laugh: but 
whoever discovers new worlds must sail the un- 
known seas. 

(d) The life of every man who has attained an honor- 
able position in the world has in it a lesson for 
each of us. 

SECTION 37. ESSAY 'WKITrNG. 

Write an essay of five paragraphs on the subject, 
'^ Our Pioneers." For the first paragraph, write the 
one given just below. Follow the outline, or sugges- 
tions, for the other paragraphs. 

(a) 1. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 
many brave men sailed away toward the setting sun. 
Some wished to serve their king, and gain new possessions 
for the crown; others fled from religious persecution; 
others sought gold or immortal youth; while still others 
sailed away just for the love of adventure. Whatever their 
reasons may have been, these daring adventurers tried 



LETTER-WRITING 233 

the fortunes of unknown seas and brought to light a New 
World. 

2. Who established colonial rights for their kings ? 
(Write a short paragraph about them.) 

3. Who sought freedom of religion ? 

4. Who searched for the fountain of youth, and who 
for gold ? 

5. Who sailed away just for the sport of it, — were 
almost pirates ? 

Or write on one of the following subjects, pre- 
paring your own outline : — 

(b) Baby's Trip of Discovery. 

(c) A Visit to a Haunted House. 

SECTION 38. LETTER- WRITING. 

Read or recall Mrs. Hemans's poem, " The Landing of 
the Pilgrims." Select from it twenty words that are 
especially descriptive of this New World, and use them 
in writing letters as directed below. 

(a) Imagine that you are living in colonial times, 
and had come over in the Mayflower when you 
were twelve years old. Write a letter to your cousin 
back in Old England, telling him of this wonderful 
new country, — of its dangers, and the pleasures of 
the great freedom you enjoy. 

(b) Imagine you are living in Virginia in the 
early years of its history, and that you are a rela- 
tive of Captain John Smith. Write to a friend of 
the adventure which ended in Smith's rescue by 
Pocahontas. 

Eemember : — 

1. the correct way to begin a letter; 

2. that the body of your letter should not be stiff 
and formal; 



234 COMPOSITION- 

3. that there should be paragraphs in the letter; 

4. that a letter should be carefully punctuated. 

SECTION 39. CLASS DEBATE. 

Prepare for a debate, or discussion, in class, of 
the topic given below. Review what you have read 
in your history about life in the two colonies, then 
decide which side of the question you will take, and 
prepare an outline for your discussion. It will be 
well to have the outline made up of the topic sen- 
tences which state definitely the reasons for your 
taking that side in the debate. 

Resolved : That life in the Jamestown colony was pre- 
ferable to life in the Plymouth colony. 

SECTION 40. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

(a) Write three paragraphs on this topic, taking 
either side : — 

Lord Baltimore deserves more commendation than 
William Penn for the wisdom and justice of his ad- 
ministration. 

(b) Write two paragraphs on the following topic, 
giving the reasons for the statement : — 

The policy of France in urging the Indi§.ns to fight the 
English was unworthy any great nation. 

(c) Possibly no event of American history thrills 
a youth more than the capture of Quebec by Wolfe. 
Write of it in six paragraphs, using the following 
outline : — 

1. The Campaign and the Arrival at Quebec. 

2. The Location of the City and the Difficulty of 
Approach. 

3. The Long Delay, Preparations, and Night As- 
cent. 



STUDY OF ORATION 235 

4. Morning in the French Camp. 

5. The Battle. 

6. The Death of Wolfe. 

SECTION 41. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

(a) Write about '^Our Tennis-Court/' in four 
paragraphs. 

1. Laying Out the Court. 

Give the dimensions so carefully that any one 
reading your essay can go ahead and lay out 
one himself. 

2. The Making of the Court. 

3. The Appearance of the Finished Court. 

4. The Pleasure We Have in Playing the Game. 

(b) Treat in the same way any other sport that 
needs to be played on grounds prepared for it ; as, 
football, baseball, croquet. 



miOMATIG SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

We are older than he. Whom are yoii speaking of ? To 
whom shall I give this paper ? It was some one else that 
lost her ring. Anybody can come ^\dth his brother. 
Neither of the boys did his best. There were three eggs 
in the nest. Any one may have his paper if he will ask. 
Either of the girls drives well. Everybody wishes his 
children to be honored. 

SECTION 42. STUDY OF ORATION. 
AN APPEAL TO ARMS. 

Part of an Address delivered before the House of Burgesses in Virginia. 

If we wish to be free ; if we mean to preserve inviolate 
those inestimable privileges for which we have been so 
long contending; if we mean not basely to abandon the 
noble struggle in which we have been so long engaged. 



236 COMPOSITION 

and which we have pledged ourselves never to abandon 
until the glorious object of our contest shall be obtained, 
— we must fight ! I repeat it, sir, — we must fight ! An 
appeal to arms, and to the God of hosts, is all that is left 
us. 

They tell us, sir, that we are weak, — unable to cope 
with so formidable an adversary. But when shall we be 
stronger ? Will it be the next week, or the next year ? Will 
it be when we are totally disarmed, and when a British 
guard shall be stationed in every house ? 

Sir, we are not weak, if we make a proper use of those 
means which the God of nature hath placed in our 
power. Three millions of people armed in the holy cause 
of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, 
are invincible by any force which our enemy can send 
against us. 

Besides, sir, we shall not fight our battles alone. There 
is a just God who presides over the destinies of nations, 
and who will raise up friends to fight our battles for us. 
The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone: it is to the 
vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, sir, we have no 
election. If we were base enough to desire it, it is now too 
late to return from the contest. There is no retreat but in 
submission and slavery. Our chains are forged. Their 
clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston. The 
war is inevitable. And let it come ! I repeat it, sir, let it 
come ! 

It is in vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen 
may cry peace, peace, but there is no peace. The war is 
actually begun. The next gale that sweeps from the north 
will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms. Our 
brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here 
idle ? What is it that gentlemen wish ? What would they 
have ? Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be pur- 
chased at the price of chains and slavery ? Forbid it, 
Almighty God ! I know not what course others may take, 
but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death ! 

Patrick Henry. 



ESSAY WRITING 237 

There may be a number of words in the above selection 
with wliich you are not familiar. You must know just 
what all these words mean, in order to know just what 
Patrick Henry meant when he used them. After you are 
sure that you know the meaning of every word, fill the 
blanks in the following sentences, using suitable words 
from the selection : — 

I wish my word to be kept . There is no 



so as a bad habit. A man that knows he is right 

is . The of a nation lie in the hands of her 

youth. He is given no in this matter. A brave 

man does not try to his faults. He knows that 

punishment of wrong-doing is . Be , be 

brave, be honest; your success is assured. 

Memorize the selection and recite it before the 
class. Speak it with vigor and force, as you think 
Patrick Henry spoke it. 

SECTION 43. ESSAY WRITING. 

Write a short essay upon one of the following 
topics : — 

(a) The Causes of the Revolutionary War. 

(b) There may come a time in the life of a boy (a man, 
or a nation) when the only honorable thing to do 
is to fight. 

Or; There can be no circumstances under which it can 
be considered honorable for a boy (a man, or a 
nation) to fight. 

(c) The hardest battles youth has to fight are those 
against self. 

Who strives against self and his comrades 

Will find a most powerful foe; 

All honor to him if he conquers; 

A cheer for the boy who says "No!" 

There's many a battle fought daily 
The world knows nothing about; 



23^ COMPOSITION 

There's many a brave little soldier 
Whose strength puts a legion to rout. 

Phoebe Gary. 



SECTION 44. STUDY OF NARRATION. 

"Children!" mamma's clear, sweet voice rang out 
pleasantly. " Children ! children ! " 

But only the comical game chickens were scurrying 
around the yard on their long stilts of legs. No children. 
Mamma went back into the breakfast-room. 

" Where can the children be ? " she said. 

"Gone to the Klondike, I believe," papa said calmly, 
without looking up from his paper. 

"Oh!" 

"Yes, I saw them equipping out in the barn just after 
breakfast. They were finely provisioned — " 

"Oh!" said mamma again. "That's why they all 
begged to carry their breakfasts out-of-doors — why, 
yes!" 

It was an hour or two before dinner when the miners 
came back and appeared before mamma in the kitchen. 
They were loaded down with big yellow pumpkins. 

"Nuggets," said Ferris briefly. 

" But why did you come back so soon — what in the 
world!" exclaimed mamma. 

Ferris's eyes shone with fun, but there was a hint in his 
tone broader than the Yukon River. 



we were starved out, ma'am," he murmured. 



This is the beginning and end of a short story. 
Do you know from reading the first part who are to 
be the principal actors in the story ? Is there any- 
thing to make you think that these children lived 
within a few years ? Do you know the time of day ? 
What tells you? Where do you think the story 

1 From The Little Gold Hunters, by Annie H. Donnell. 



STUDY OF NARRATION 239 

happened, — in America, England, or in China ? 
What makes you tliink so ? 

If you have read " A Christmas Carol," you will 
remember that the story told you right at the begin- 
ning Avho was the principal character, what time of 
year it was, and where the story happened. 

Now look at your reading-books or the literature 
you may be reading and see how often you find out, 
near the beginning, the who, the when, and the 
where of the stories.. 

You have probably made up your minds what the 
middle of the story is from the beginning and end- 
ing given here. Do you think the ending good? 
With the beginning and the ending known, is it easy 
to make up the middle ? Then what would you do 
first in writing a story ? 

Study the following suggestions about narration^ 
or story-writing : — 

1. Think your story clear through before beginning to 
write. Be sure that you know the point of your 
story, which will naturally come at the end, and is 
called the main incident. 

2. Remember that when the main incident is told the 
story should be done. Never go back after the point 
of a story has been told to tell of something you 
should have mentioned before. 

3. Tell everything that is necessary to make the end of 
your story possible, but do not tell anything more. 

4. In the beginning of a story, usually in the first few 
paragraphs of a short story, tell who the principal 
characters are, where the story happened, and when 
it happened. 

5. Make the beginning of your story interesting, by 
having some good thing to start off with. This is 
usually some bright conversation, or some especially 
attractive incident. 



240 COMPOSITION 

6. Make the incidents of your story go along rapidly; 
and have each incident depend on one that has pre- 
ceded. A string of things tied together by *' and's " is 
always a poor story. 

SECTION 45. AVKITnSTG PARTS OF NARRATIVE. 

(a) Write what you think is the rest of the story 
entitled " The Little Gold Hunters," the beginning 
and end of which are given in Section 4A. 

(b) Make up and write one incident which might 
have changed Scrooge from the man he was at iirst 
to the man we know at the end of " A Christmas 
Carol." 

SECTION 46. NARRATIVE COMPOSITION "WRITING. 

Write on the subject, " My First Fish." 

1. The Announcement, Characters, Time, and Place, 
— Who? When? Where? 

How did you happen to go fishing ? Here is the way 
one story about fishing begins : — 

*"Hi, there, sister! I want to tell you something, — a 
secret; and you must n't tell David. He 's too small to go 
with us; he'd fall in,' called Frank. He was all out of 
breath; for ..." 

2. The Preparation. 

» 3. The Journey to the Place. 

4. The Sport. 

5. The Return. 

You might end the story with something like this: 
Certainly no prouder boy and girl ever returned from a 
fishing trip ; for had we not . . . etc. 

SECTION 47. NARRATIVE COMPOSITION WRITINa 

(a) Almost every child has played circus. Write 
about itj following this outline : — 

1. How we happened to have a circus. 

2. The assignment of the parts. 



NARRATIVE COMPOSITION WRITING 241 

3. The rehearsals. 

4. The great day. 

This will probably take three or four paragraphs. What 
was the crowning event? Did it go off well ? 

(b) Possibly you were one who gained admission 
by the payment of five pins. If so, use this out- 
line : — 

1. The announcement. 

How did you learn about the circus ? Did you 
see a handbill got up by the boys ? 

2. The days of anticipation. 

What rumors leaked out about the show? 

3. The great day. 

(c) Possibly you had a play instead of a circus. 
Write about this if it suits you better. 

SECTION 48. NARKATIVE COMPOSITION WRITING. 

Before you try to write this story, the teacher will read 
to you Eugene Field's "The Gingham Dog and the 
Calico Cat," and Thomas Bailey Aldrich's "A Christmas 
Fantasy." 

Imagine that two of the animals in your Noah's 
Ark — things you hadn't played with for years, and 
had put away in the attic — had begun to quarrel 
and, at last, got into a terrible fight. It was long 
past midnight ; and their loud voices awakened you. 
In writing about this, do not fear to give your 
imagination full play. It will help you to make 
up a good story. 

THEIR LAST FIGHT. 

1. Your fright at the sudden awakening. 

2. The quarrel. 

Who ? when ? where ? In telling who, describe the 
combatants. 



242 COMPOSITION 

3. The challenge. 

4. The attack and the terrible fight. 

5. The result. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

A troop of noisy boys is playing in the street. Work 
and play are good for any one. Frank as well as Rob was 
invited. Neither of these trees is large enough. Each of 
the girls stands well. " Prue and I " has many wise say- 
ings. Either you or I are first in the class. " Little Men " 
is full of interest. Liberty or death was the wish of Henry. 
Every one of them was laboring for the same end. The 
army of the Frost King has departed. Neither unkind 
truth nor untrue kindness was needed. 

SECTION 49. NARRATIVE COMPOSITION ^VRITING. 

On page 243 is a picture of an interesting young- 
ster. You can tell that he- has just come from some 
pleasant pastime. Imagine that you meet him as he 
rounds the corner, and that you ask him what he 
has been doing. Get him to tell the story to you. 
Do you have to ask a great many questions to get 
the story out of him ? 

Write the story that the boy in the picture tells 
you. Give it a suitable title. Begin by telling when 
and where you met hinij and how you led him to tell 
you his story. 

In making up the story, remember how old he is, 
what he w^ould be likely to do, and what kind of 
words a boy of his age would use. 

SECTION 50. NARRATIVE COMPOSITION "WRITING. 

Every boy and girl should know the story of Paul 
Revere's Ride. If you have not read Longfellow's poem 
about it, your teacher will read it to you or tell you where 
you can find it. 




AN INTERESTING YOUNGSTER 



244 COMPOSITION 

Imagine that you, with your brother and sister, 
were at a neighbor's house the night Paul Revere 
rode through. You heard his cry. You heard the 
words spoken by the parents and children in the 
house. You left quickly to go home, for you knew 
that the rider had already passed your house. What 
did you say as you hurried home through the dark? 
How did your mother receive you ? What did your 
father say and do ? He left that night ; for he be- 
longed to the Minute Men. 

Write the story of the night's experience. Include 
all the incidents suggested above ; and tell of your 
father's hasty preparation, the leave-taking, and the 
anxious conversation after he had gone. 

SECTION 51. STUDY OF POEMS AND PICTURE. NARRA- 
TIVE COMPOSITION. 

WARREN'S ADDRESS TO THE AMERICAN SOLDIERS. 

Stand! the ground's your own, my braves! 
Will ye give it up to slaves ? 
Will ye look for greener graves ? 

Hope ye mercy still ? 
What's the mercy despots feel? 
Hear it in that battle-peal! 
Read it on yon bristling steel 1 

Ask it, — ye who will. ^ 

Fear ye foes who kill for hire ? 
Will ye to your homes retire ? 
Look behind you! they're a-fire! 

And, before you, see 
Who have done it ! — From the vale 
On they come ! — And will ye quail ? — 
Leaden rain and iron hail 

Let their welcome be! 

In the God of battles trust! 

Die we may, — and die we must ; 



COMPOSITION WRITING 245 

But, O, where can dust to dust 

Be consigned so well, 
As where Heaven its dcAvs shall shed 
On the martyred patriot's bed, 
And the rocks shall raise their head, 

Of his deeds to tell ! 

John Pierpont. 

Memorize the poem given above ; and read, or 
listen to the reading of, Holmes's " Grandmother's 
Story of Bunker Hill Battle." ' On page 247 is a 
copy of a picture made by Howard Pyle to illustrate 
Holmes's poem. Look at the faces closely, and tell 
what you read there. Why are there no other men 
shown in the picture ? How far away is the terrible 
battle going on ? 

Imagine that you had an older brother in that 
battle, and that when you heard the noise of cannon 
that beautiful summer morning you rushed from the 
house to ^atch. Write the story of your imagined 
experience. Tell what you saw and how you felt as 
the conflict rose and fell. Did your brother come 
home that night? 

SECTION 52. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

If you have read Hale's " The Man Without a Coun- 
try," you will remember the decision of the Court " that 
you never hear the name of the United States again." 
The next paragraph reads, " Nolan laughed. But nobody 
else laughed. Old ^lorgan was too solemn, and the whole 
room was hushed dead as night in a minute. Even Nolan 
lost his swagger in a moment." Further on in the story 
Nolan says to his comrade, "Youngster, let that show 
you what it is to be without a family, without a home, and 
without a country. And if ever you are tempted to say a 

^ This poem can be found in any complete edition of Holmes's poems, 
or in Number 6 of the Riverside Literature Series, price 15 cents. 



246 COMPOSITION 

word or to do a thing that shall put a bar between you and 
your family, your home, and your country, pray God in 
his mercy to take you that instant home to his own 
heaven." 

(a) Many a lad has at some time been so angry 
with his sister that he has said that he wished he 
might never hear her name again. Suppose that you 
had done this, and your mother had quietly said, 
" All right, my boy, you shall not see sister nor hear 
her name for a week." Write the incident, following 
this outline : — 

1. The quarrel that made you so vexed with sister. 

2. The recital of the case to your mother, and her 
decision. 

3. The method of carrying out the sentence. 

4. Your thoughts as the week went on, and what 
you did. 

5. Your decision at the end of the week. 

(b) In the state house at Hartford there is a beau- 
tiful statue of one of Connecticut's heroes. It is the 
youth, Nathan Hale. Do you know the story of his 
life and hero's death ? If so, write it, using this out- 
line : — 

1. The two armies at New York, and Washington's 
great need. 

2. The difficulty in finding some one to go. 

3. Hale's offer, his disguise, and journey. 

4. His capture, and his last words. 

5. His heroic death. 

With calm brow, with steady brow, 

He listens to his doom; 

In his look there is no fear, 

Nor shadow-trace of gloom; 

But with calm brow and steady brow 

He robes him for the tomb. 




WATCHING THE BATTLE 



248 COMPOSITION 

'Neath the blue morn, the sunny morn, 

He dies upon the tree; 

And he mourns that he can lose 

But one life for liberty; 

And in the blue morn, the sunny morn, 

His spirit-wings are free. 

But his last words, his message words. 
They burn, lest friendly eye 
Should read how proud and calm 
A patriot could die. 
With his last words, his dying words, 
A soldier's battle-cry. 

Francis Miles Finch. 

SECTION 53. STUDY OP POEMS. COMPOSITION WRITING. 

THE AMERICAN FLAG. 

When Freedom, from her mountain height. 
Unfurled her standard to the air, 
She tore the azure robe of night. 
And set the stars of glory there! 
She mingled with its gorgeous dyes 
The milky baldric of the skies, 
And striped its pure celestial white 
With streakings of the morning light, 
Then, from his mansion in the sun. 
She called her eagle-bearer down. 
And gave into his mighty hand 
The symbol of her chosen land ! ^ 

Joseph Rodman Drake. 

THE FLAG GOES BY. . 

Hats off! 

Along the street there comes 

A blare of bugles, a ruffle of drums, 

A flash of color beneath the sky: 

Hats off! 

The flag is passing by! 

1 First stanza of complete poem. 



COMPOSITION WRITING 249 

Blue and crimson and white it shines. 

Over the steel-tipped, ordered lines. 

Hats off! 

The colors before us fly; 

But more than the flag is passing by. 

Sea-fights and land-fights, grim and great, 
Fought to make and to save the State: 
Weary marches and sinking ships; 
Cheers of victory on dying lips; 

Days of plenty and years of peace ; 
March of a strong land's swift increase; 
Equal justice, right and law, 
Stately honor and reverend awe; 

Sign of a nation, great and strong 
To ward her people from foreign wrong: 
Pride and glory and honor, — all 
Live in the colors to stand or fall. 

Hats off! 

Along the street there comes 

A blare of bugles, a ruffle of drums; 

And loyal hearts are beating high: 

Hats off! 

The flag is passing by! 

Henry Holcomb Bennett. 

Commit to memory the stanza from " The Ameri- 
can Flag," and the whole of the poem, " The Flag 
Goes By." 

Near'^the end of "The Man Without a Country," 
these sentences occur : — 

"Well, I went in, and there, to be sure, the poor fellow 
lay in his berth, smiling pleasantly as he gave me his 
hand, but looking very frail. I could not help a glance 
round, which showed me what a shrine he had made of 
the box he was lying in. The stars and stripes were triced 
up above and around a picture of Washington, and he 



250 COMPOSITION 

had painted a majestic eagle, with Hghtnings blazing 
from his beak and his foot just clasping the whole globe, 
which his wings overshadowed. The dear old boy saw my 
glance, and said, with a sad smile, ' Here, you see, I have 
a country!'" 

Write upon one of the following topics : — 

(a) How little we appreciate the blessings of Our 
Country ! 

(b) Not until I read "The Man Without a Country" 
did I begin to realize the rich blessing of being a 
man with a country that I can call my native land. 

(c) It would be a good custom if all of us, old and 
young, should lift our hats to salute our flag. 

(d) I can hardly understand how a man claiming to be 
an American citizen can use Old Glory for adver- 
tising his business. 

(e) No prettier or more fitting custom prevails in our 
land than that of placing flowers and flags upon 
the graves of our hero dead. 

SECTION 54. STUDY OF DESCRIPTION. 

1. His mother named him Harold, and named him 
better than she knew. He was just such a boy as one 
would expect to see bearing a heroic name. He had big, 
faded blue eyes, a nubbin of a chin, wide, wondering ears, 
and freckles, — such brown blotches of freckles, — on 
his face and neck and hands, such a milky way of them 
across the bridge of his snub nose that the boys called 
him "Mealy." And Mealy Jones it was to the end.^ 

William Allen White. 

2. There was one passenger in the coach, — a small 
dark-haired person in a glossy buif calico dress. She was 
so slender and so stiffly starched that she slid from space 
to space on the leather cushions, though she braced her- 
self against the middle seat with her feet and extended 
her cotton-gloved hands on each side, in order to maintain 

^ From The Court of Boyville. 



STUDY OF DESCRIPTION 251 

some sort of balance. Whenever the wheels sank farther 
than usual into a rut, or jolted suddenly over a stone, she 
bounded involuntarily into the air, came down again, 
pushed back her funny little straw hat, and picked up or 
settled more firmly a small pink sunshade, which seemed 
to be her chief responsibility — unless we except a bead 
purse, into which she looked whenever the condition of 
the roads would permit, finding a great apparent satisfac- 
tion in that its precious contents neither disappeared nor 
grew less.^ 

Kate Douglas Wiggin. 

3. I wiggled above the bulge at the risk of life, and was 
greeted at the mouth of the cavern with hisses and beak- 
snappings from within. It was a raw, spring day; snow 
still lingered in shady spots. But here, backed against the 
farther wall of the cavity, were two young owls, scarcely 
a week old, wrapped up like little Eskimos — tiny bun- 
dles of down that the whitest toothed frost could never 
bite through. Very green babies of all kinds are queer; 
but the greenest, homeliest, unlikeliest, babiest babes I 
ever encountered were these two in the hole.^ 

Dallas L. Sharp. 

Had the writer of the description really seen Harold ? 
the little girl, Rebecca ? the owls ? Was there a clear 
picture in the writer's mind of the thing described ? What 
is the one thing most prominent in the description of 
Harold ? of Rebecca ? of the owls ? Does each descrip- 
tion leave one clear impression ? Do all the details seem 
to fit ? How long is each description ? Select the words 
in these descriptions that seem to you especially good. 

Study the following suggestions for writing de- 
scriptions : — 

1. The first thing in writing a description is to see. No 
two trees, no two cats, no two boys look just alike. Every- 

1 From Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm. Copyright, 1903, by Kate Doug- 
Las Rig-g-s. 

2 From A Watcher in the Woods. 



252 COMPOSITION 

body knows that cats have four legs, a nose, and a tail. So 
if only these things were mentioned, no description would 
be given. But if you looked closely and saw that " one of 
Spitfire's paws was snow-white, as if he took special pains 
with his bath every niorning," you have seen something 
that makes him different from other cats. Find the one 
thing or many things that make one object look different 
from all others. Tell of these; they make the descrip- 
tion. 

2. Keep your point of view. By point of view is meant 
the place where you stand to see the object you describe. 
Writing a description is like taking a picture : if you take 
a view of the front of the house, the back cannot be seen. 
If the photographer wished to have a picture of both 
front and back, he would move his camera. So if you 
wished to describe both the front and back of a house, 
you would write one description, then tell that you had 
moved around to the back of the house, and write the 
other. For example: *'We crept breathlessly into the 
small opening among the oak-trees, and there, gray and 
silent, was the back end of the old Dow house, where the 
ghost clanked his sword every night." Then follows the 
description of this part of the house. Next : " Creeping 
stealthily behind the hazel bushes, we came around to the 
front of the house." Then the front is described. These 
short sentences, indicating the change in the point of 
view, are just like setting up a camera for a picture. If 
necessary, make two or more pictures ; but be sure to tell 
where you are in each case. Do not confuse your pictures ; 
keep your point of view. 

3. Select the proper characteristics or details. Every 
object you describe arouses some feeling in you. It pleases, 
it vexes, it satisfies, it amuses, it surprises, or it angers 
you. Find out the characteristics that cause this feeling. 
Include these in the description, and no others. Again, 
select only the prominent details. Four or five, made so 
clear that every reader sees them, are better than a host 
of indistinct details. 

4. Arrange the details of your description in some 



DESCRIPTIVE WRITING 253 

definite order. When you see any object you notice some 
feature first, and the other details are seen in some order 
from this one. For example, if you see a man near by, you 
notice his face first; but you would not next look at his 
shoes, and then at his necktie. Details should be men- 
tioned in the order in which they would naturally be 
seen. 

5. MaJke your descriptions short. One hundred words 
are usually enough; fifty are often better. Select your 
words with care, so that every one tells something. One 
good word is worth twenty "pretty good" words. 

SECTION 55. DESCRIPTIVE MmiTrNG. 

Write a description of Spitfire, the kitten : — 

(a) about to spring at a ball of string ; 

(b) frightened; 

(c) come to grief; 

(d) asleep; or, 

(e) caught in the act. 

You will find it easier to get started with a description 
if you give a sentence or two telling how you happened to 
see the thing you describe. Notice the paragraph about 
the owls in Section 54 ; the sentences about the Dow house. 



miOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

Some one has stolen the rake. The teacher rang the 
bell. The dog began to eat his dinner. Jamie saw a rain- 
bow. The bird has flown. General Grant always did his 
best. She sat by the window. Set the plant in the sun- 
light. One child lay on the grass asleep. I shall lie in the 
hammock. He laid his fishing-rod in the boat. Jennie 
drank some salt water. Her fingers were frozen. 

SECTION 56. DESCHZPTIVE "WRITrNTG. 

You have seen a dog when he almost asked you 
to pick up a stick or a stone and throw it into the 



254 COMPOSITION 

water for him to get. How did he speak to you? 
Or possibly he brought you a croquet-ball or a block 
and laid it at your feet, asking you to roll it. 

Write a description of the dog, as he stands 
there, looking into your face, and waiting. Do not 
tell of the game you had with him. 

SECTION 57. DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 

Write a description of some bird or animal you 
have seen while hunting, or when visiting a zoolog- 
ical garden or menagerie. 

(a) Rover had been barking a long while, and I knew 
there was something unusual exciting him. I crept very 
carefully through the thick underbrush, hoping that I 
should not frighten whatever it might be. What was my 
surprise to find ! (Tell what, and describe it.) 

(b) I had seen many pictures of lions and had often 
fancied how they looked. Now I found myself right 
before the Hon's cage. (Describe the lion.) 

SECTION 58. DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 

(a) Describe the Dow house, referred to in Sec- 
tion 54, from two points of view. Use the two sen- 
tences given in that section, or similar ones, to show 
the change in your position. 

(b) Describe your study-room as it appears to you 
when in different moods : once when you are happy, 
and again when you are much distressed. 

I always study in ... . Today when I came home, 
the dear room looked so bright and cheerful, for had 
I not made good recitations in every class ! 

Today when I went home, I was all out of sorts. 
Everything had gone wrong. (What had happened ?) 
When I went upstairs to my room, it seemed to me like 
a dismal old prison 



COMPOSITION WRITING . 255 

SECTION 59. DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. 

Write a description of some person. The old 
schoolmaster in the picture " Kept In," on page 207, 
is a good subject. The happy youngster, on page 
24:3, is a fine fellow to describe. Other good ones 
are A Street Musician, The Pop-Corn Man, A Tramp, 

Our Policeman, My Grandmother, Aunt , 

Cousin , or any members of your family that 

have strong characters. Before writing, study the de- 
scriptions at the beginning of Section 54. Notice 
how few things are told in those descriptions, and 
how well they are said. 



IDIOMATIC SENTENCES FOR DRILL. 

Those chickens belong to Mr. Jones. I do not like this 
kind of grapes. I have been absent the last two days. 
Read the first three pages. Which is taller, Mary or I ? 
How are you this morning ? Very well, I thank you. 
(Never say "Nicely, thank you." The whole sentence 
would read, I am nicely; and that is very bad.) We are 
almost there. . It was very painful. The milk smells 
sweet. The hat looks pretty. Madame Blauvelt sings 
almost as well as Nordica. The book can be shared » 
between you and Fred. There was but one tardiness 
among us all. This piece is different from that. I left my 
music at home. She neither laughed nor talked all the 
evening. Try to study music. Do it as I do. I shall not go 
imless he goes. I don't know whether I can go. He is as 
tall as you, or taller. 

SECTION 60. COMPOSITION WRITING ON TOPICS 
SUGGESTED BY POEMS AND PICTURE. 

Breathes there the man, with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said. 
This is my own, my native land ? 



256 . COMPOSITION 

Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned 
As home his footsteps he hath turned 

From wandering on a foreign strand ? 
If such there breathe, go, mark him well; 
For him no minstrel raptures swell; 
High though his titles, proud his name, 
Boundless his wealth as wish can claim, — 
Despite those titles, power, and pelf, 
The wretch, concentred all in self. 
Living, shall forfeit fair renown. 
And, doubly dying, shall go down 
To the vile dust from whence he sprung, 
Unwept, unhonored, and unsung.^ 

Sir Walter Scott. 

Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State! 
Sail on, O Union, strong and great! 
Humanity with all its fears, 
With all the hopes of future years, 
Is hanging breathless on thy fate! 
We know what Master laid thy keel, 
What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel. 
Who made each mast, and sail, and rope, 
What anvils rang, what hammers beat. 
In what a forge and what a heat 
. Were shaped the anchors of thy hope! 
Fear not each sudden sound and shock, 
'T is of the wave and not the rock ; 
'T is but the flapping of the sail. 
And not a rent made by the gale! 
In spite of rock and tempest's roar. 
In spite of false lights on the shore, 
Sail on, nor fear to breast the sea! 
Our hearts, our hopes, are all with thee. 
Our hearts, our hopes, our prayers, our tears. 
Our faith triumphant o'er our fears. 
Are all with thee, — are all with thee ! ^ 

Longfellow. 

1 From The Lay of the Last Minstrel, Canto VI. 

2 From The Building of the Ship. 




FOR FATHERLAND 



258 COMPOSITION 

On page 257, is a picture of a beautiful statue, 
named '^ For Fatherland." It stands for a deep 
thought. In any country what would manhood do in 
defense of its fatherland? Write two paragraphs 
about the picture, — one telling a person that has 
not seen it how it looks ; the other telling the 
thought that is the soul of this beautiful group. 

Write a paragraph on one of the following topics: 

(a) If we should again be called to defend our land 
from a foreign foe, millions of young men would 
spring to arms, rejoicing in the opportimity of 
showing their love for fatherland. 

(b) How much one man can do, even in times of peace, 
to exalt a nation before the whole world is shown 
in the glorious achievements of our honored Presi- 
dent. 

(c) In peace, as in war, a nation needs high-minded, 
courageous men to defend and uphold her sacred 
honor. 



RULES FOR CAPITALIZATION A]>nD PUNCTUATION. 

I. A Capital Letter is used to begin: — 

1. the first word of every sentence; 

2. proper nouns, and most words derived from proper nouns 5 

3. the first word of a direct quotation; 

4. the words I and O; 

5. the first word of a Une of poetry; 

6. names of months, holidays, and days of the week; 

7. names applied to the Deity; 

8. the first word and every important word of a title; 

9. an abbreviation, if the entire word should begin with a 

capital ; 

10. the name of a point of the compass when used to denote a 

section of the country; 

11. the greeting and the complimentary close of a letter. 

II. A Period is used to close : — 

1. a statement, a command, or a wish, except when sudden, 

strong feeling is expressed; 

2. an abbreviation or an initial; 

3. a letter-heading, a signature, or a title used alone. 

III. A Question Mark follows every direct question. 

IV. An Exclamation Mark is used to close every expression of 

sudden, strong feeling. It is generally used after interjec- 
tions and the exclamatory form of sentences. 

V. A Comma or Commas should be used to separate: — 

1. words and expressions used in a series, unless all the con- 

necting words are expressed; 

2. the name of the person or thing addressed from the rest of 

the sentence ; 

3. an appositive from the word it modifies; 

4. adjectives in the appositive position from the noun they 

modify ; 

5. words, phrases, or clauses, either explanatory or paren- 

thetical, from the rest of the sentence; 

6. phrases and clauses out of their natural order from th.e rest 

of the sentence; 

7. a short, informal quotation from the words of the author; 

8. the propositions of a compound sentence, if they are 

simple ; 

9. a clause from the main proposition of a complex sentence, 

if the relation is loose, or if the clause is long ; 



260 COMPOSITION 

10. the words Yes and No from the rest of a sentence; 

11. the items of a letter-heading, date, and address. 

VI. A Semicolon is used : — 

1. to separate the propositions of a compound sentence, if they 
are long, or if the propositions themselves contain com- 
mas, or in most cases when the connective is omitted ; 

2. to follow the words of an author, when these words are 
inserted between the independent propositions of a broken 
quotation. 

VII. An Apostrophe is used to indicate : — 

1. possession; 

2. the omission of letters in contractions. 

VIII. Quotation Marks should inclose : — 

1. every direct quotation; 

2. each part of a broken quotation. 

IX. Quotation Marks should not inclose an indirect quotation. 



INDEX 



Absolute Words, 55. 
Active Voice, 127-129. 
Adjectives, 29, 30, 119-126. 

Classes of, 120. 

Comparison of, 121-123. 

Conjunctive, 115, 120. 

Construction of, 124, 125. 

Predicate, 30. 
Adjective Clauses, 59-67. 
Adjective Use of Xouns, 11-1 6. 
Adverbs, 30, 183-186. 

Classes of, 184. 

Comparison of, 185. 

Conjunctive, 65, Q6, 184. 
Adverbial Clauses, 67-72. 
Adverbial Use of Nouns, 42, 43. 
Agreement of Verbs, 150-152. 
American Flag, The (Drake), 

248. 
Analysis, 8. 
Antecedent, 91. 
Appeal to Arms, An (Henry), 

235. 
Appositive, 45, 102. 
Articles, 120, 121. 
Attributes, 1, 2. 
Attribute Complements, 16. 
Attributive Verbs, 14, 126. 
Auxiliary Verbs, 133. 

" Be," Conjugation of, 176. 
Bovs from School (Longfellow), 

" 221. 
Building of the Ship, The (Long- 
fellow), 257. 

" Can," 157, 158, 159. 
Capital Letters, 259. 
Case, 101-103. 

Rules for Formation of Pos- 
sessive, 102, 103. 
Classes of Sentences, 52, 53, 73. 



Clause, 60, 73. 

Adjective, 59-67. 

Adverbial, 67-72. 

Noun, 72-79. 
Collective Nouns, 88. 
Columbus (Sigourney), 230. 
Comparison of Adjectives, 121- 
123. 

of Adverbs, 185. 
Complements, 15, 16. 

Attribute, 16. 

Object, 17. 

Objective, 21-23. 
Complex Sentences, 61, 68. 
Compound Elements of a Sen- 
tence, 58. 
Compound Sentences, 57, 73. 
Concessive Clauses, 145, 146. 
Conditional Clauses, 142-145. 
Conjugation, 131, 132, 133, 134, 

140, 156-181. 
Conjunctions, 69, 189-192. 

Classes of, 190-192. 
Conjunctive Adjective, 115, 120. 
Conjunctive Adverb, 66, 184. 
Conjunctive Pronoun, 61, 93. 

Declension of, 105. 

Uses of, 112-115. 
Construction of Nouns, 95, 96. 

of Pronouns, 96, 97. 
Copula, 2, 11. 
Copula-Attribute, 11. 
" Could," 157, 158, 159. 
Court of Boyville, The (White), 

250. 
Cow, The (Burroughs), 227. 

Declension of Nouns, 104. 

of Pronouns, 104, 105. 
Degree, Clauses of, 70-72. 
Demonstrative Pronouns, 94. 

Uses of, 116-118. 



262 



INDEX 



Description, 250-255. 

« Do," Conjugation of, 134. 

Use of, 139, 140. 
Double Possessives, 103. 
Dream of Summer, A (Whittier), 
86. 

Ellipsis, 63. 

of Pronouns, 115. 
Emphatic Verb-Phrases, 139, 140. 
Exclamatory Form of Sentences, 
55. 

Flag Goes by, The (Bennett), 

248. 
For Fatherland (Picture), 256. 

Gender, 108, 109. 

Gerunds, 84, 165, 166. 

Gift of Tritemius, The (Whit- 
tier), 212. 

God Bless Us Every One (Riley), 
225. 

Grave Inflection of Pronouns, 107. 
of Verbs, 132. 

" Have," Conjugation of, 134. 

Use of, 157. 
" He," Use of, 108. 
« Hide," Conjugation of, 178-181. 

Idea, 1. 

Idiomatic Sentences for Drill, 
198, 202, 205, 215, 222, 229, 
235, 242, 254, 255. 
Indefinite Pronouns, 94. 

Uses of, 116-118. 
Indian Summer, The (Longfel- 
low), 227. 
Indirect Object, 40, 41. 
Infinitives, 82-84, 162-172. 

Construction of, 163-169. 

Forms of, 162, 163. 

Sign of, 165, 169. 

With Subject, 167-169. 
Inflection, 3. 

of Adjectives, 121-123. 

of Adverbs, 185. 

of Nouns, 104. 

of Pronouns, 104, 105, 



of Verbs, 129-131, 133, 134, 
176-181. 
Interjections, 55. 
Interesting Youngster, An (Pic- 
ture), 242. 
Interrogative Pronouns, 94. 

Declension of, 104, 105. 

Uses of. 111, 112. 
Interrogative Sentences, 53. 
Intransitive Verbs, 19, 20, 126. 
Introductory Words, 73, 185, 191. 
"It,"50, 51, 108, 109. 

June (Lowell), 116. 

Kept In (Picture), 107. 

"Let," Use of, 158. 

Letter- Writing, 197-206. 

Little Gold-Hunters The (Don- 

nell), 238. 
Little Rivers (Van Dyke), 87. 

Man without a Country, The 

(Hale), 249. 
" May," 156, 157, 159. 
Mice in Council, The (Fa'ble), 

231 
" Might/' 156, 157, 159. 
Mode, 141-150. 

Indicative, 142, 144, 145. 

Imperative, 142. 

Subjunctive, 142-148. 
Modifiers, 26, 27. 
" Must," 157, 158, 159. 
My Native Land (Scott), 256. 

Narration, 238-250. 
Nathan Hale (Finch), 248. 
New Conjugation, 173. 
Nominative Absolute, 162. 
Nouns, 4, 87-89. 

Adjective Use of, 44^6. 

Adverbial Use of, 42, 43. 

Collective, 85. 

Common, 85. 

Construction of, 95, 96. 

Declension of, 104. 

Proper, 85. 
Noun Clauses, 72-79. 



INDEX 



263 



Number, 99-101. 
Plural, 99. 

Formation of, 99-101. 
Sincrular, 99. 

of Verbs, 150-152. 

Object, Direct, 41. 

Indirect, 41. 
Object Complement, 17. 
Objective Complement, 21-23. 
Old Conjufifation, 174. 
Order of Words in a Sentence, 

48, 49. 
"Ought," 157,158, 159. 

Parsing: — Adjectives, 125. 

Adverbs, 185. 

Conjunctions, 192. 

Nouns and Pronouns, 110. 

Prepositions, 188. 

Verbs, 181, 182. 
Parts of Speech, 87. 
Participles, 79, 81, 160-162. 
Participial Phrase, 80. 
Passive Voice, 127, 128. 
Personal Pronouns, 93. 

Constructions of, 96, 97. 

Declension of, 104. 

Uses of, 105, 109. 
Phrases, 31, 32. 

Adjective, 33. 

Adverbial, 33. 

as Attribute Complement, 34, 
39. 

Uses of, 39. 
Plural Number, 99. 

Rules for, 99-101. * 
Possessives, 45. « 

Double, 103. 

Formation of, 102, 103. 

Secondary Forms of, 109. 
Predicate, 2. 

of first type, 9, 25. 

of second type, 11, 12, 25. 

of third type, 18, 25. 

of fourth type, 23, 24, 25. 

Bare, 27. 

Complete, 27. 
Predicate Attributes, 2. 

Kinds of, 6. 



Prepositions, 36-38, 187-189. 
Principal Parts of Verbs, 173-176. 
Progressive Verb-Phrases, 137- 

139. 
Pronouns, 4, 5, 90-94. 
Antecedent of, 91. 
Classes of, 91-94. 
Conjunctive, 61, 93. 
Compound, 115. 
Declension of, 115. 
Uses of, 112-115. 
Constructions of, 96, 97. 
Declension of, 104, 105. 
Demonstrative, 94, 116-118. 
Indefinite, 94, 116-118. 
Interrogative, 94, 111, 112. 
Personal, 93. 

Declension of, 104. 
Uses of, 105-109. 
Proper Noun, 85. 
Prue and I (Curtis), 193. 
Punctuation, 259, 260. 
Purpose Clauses, 146, 

Secondary Possessives, 109. 
Sentences, 2. 
Analysis of, 8. 
Classes of, 52, 53, 73. 
Declarative, 53. 
Interrogative, 53. 
Imperative, 53. 
Simple, 57, 73. 
Complex, 61, 68, 73. 
Compound, 57, 73. 
Compound-Complex, 73. 
Predicate of, 2. 
Subject of, 2. 
"Shall," 152-154,159. 
" She," 108. 
"Should," 155, 159. 
Subject, 2. 
Bare, 27. 
• Complete, 27. 

of Infinitive, 167-169. 
Subjunctive Mode, 142-148. 
Substantive, 10. 
Synopsis, 178. 

Tense, 130, 135-137. 

"That," 73. 



264 



INDEX 



"There,"50, 51, 185. 
Thought, 2. 

Time Clause, Subjunctive in, 147. 
"To," Sign of Infinitive, 94. 

Omission of, 169. 
To a Violet (Lowell), 218. 
Transitive Verb, 19, 20, 146. 
True Worth (Gary), 224. 

Verbs, 13, 14, 126-183. 
Attributive, 14, 126. 
Auxiliary, 133. 
Complete, 15. 

Conjugation of, 131, 133, 134, 
173, 174, 176-181. 

New, 173. 

Old, 174. 
Copulative, 13, 14, 126. 
Incomplete, 16. 



Intransitive, 19, 20, 126. 

Principal Parts of, 173-176. 

Some Common, 152-160. 

Transitive, 19, 20, 126. 
Verbals, 84. 
Verb-Phrases, 14, 133. 

Emphatic, 139, 140. 

Progressive, 137-139. 
Vision of Sir Launfal, 216. 
Voice, 127-129. 

Active, 127-129. 

Passive, 127-129. 

Watching the Battle (Picture), 

246. 
"Will," 134. 

Use of, 152-154, 159. 
Wish, Subjunctive of, 141, 146. 
" Would," 155, 159. 



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